onal 
ity 


• 


H- 


MANUAL 


HOME-MADE  APPARATUS 


WITH    REFERENCE   TO 


CHEMISTRY,  PHYSICS,  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


JOHN    F.  WOODHULL, 

PROFESSOR    OF   METHODS    OF   TEACHING    SCIENCE    IN    TEACHERS'    COLLEGE, 

NEW   YORK    CITY  J    AUTHOR    OF    "SIMPLE    EXPERIMENTS    FOR   THE 

SCHOOLROOM,"    AND    "FIRST    COURSE    IN    SCIENCE." 


NEW  tORK  AND  CHICAGO: 

E.    L.    KELLOGG  &  CO. 


THE  FIRST  EDITION  OF  THIS  BOOK,  PRINTED  UPON  THE 
CYCLOSTYLE,  WAS  PUBLISHED  IN  1888,  COPIES  OF  WHICH 
WERE  SOLD  IN  NEARLY  EVERY  STATE  OF  THE  UNION  AND 
IN  ABOUT  TEN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Copyright,  1895,  by 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO., 

NEW  YORK. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

COURSE  IN  GLASS-WORKING. 

PAGE 

1.  Bending  glass  tubing. 5 

2.  Drawing  and  closing  glass  tubing 6 

3.  Blowing  bulbs 8 

4.  Cutting  glass  tubing,  bottle,  etc 8 

5.  To  bore  holes  in  glass 10 

PART  II. 
CHEMICAL  APPARATUS. 

7.  Oxygen  apparatus 12 

8-10.  Glass  generators 13 

11.  Gas  generator  with  condensing  chamber 15 

12.  Apparatus   for   showing  that  a  portion  of  the  air  is  con- 

sumed in  combustion 16 

13.  Apparatus  for  determining  the  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the 

air 16 

14.  Miner's  safety  lamp 17 

15-16.   Test-tube,  rack,  and  tongs 18 

17.  Blowpipe 19 

18.  Distilling  apparatus 19 

19.  Apparatus  to  show  that  water  may  be  produced  by  passing 

hydrogen  over  hot  copper  oxide 20 

iii 


iv  Table  of  Contents. 

PAGE 

20.  Apparatus  to  show  that  hydrogen  may  be  produced  by  pass- 

ing steam  over  hot  iron  filings 21 

21.  Apparatus  to  show  that  oxygen  or  chlorine  will  burn  in  hy- 

drogen     22 

PART  III. 

PHYSICAL  APPARA  TUS. 

22.  Apparatus  io  show  that  air  occupies  space  to  the  exclusion 

of  other  things 24 

23.  Apparatus   to   show   that   invisible   substances   may   have 

weight 24 

24.  Receiver  for  experiments  in  rarefied  and  condensed  air... .  25 
25-27.  Apparatus  to  show  that  the  volume  of  air  varies  as  the 

pressure  upon  it  increases  or  decreases , 26 

28.  Apparatus  to  demonstrate  that  the  volume  of  a  gas  varies 

inversely  as  the  pressure  upon  it 28 

29.  Apparatus  to  show  a  fountain  caused  by  atmospheric  press- 

ure and  a  fountain  caused  by  compressed  air 29 

30.  Barometer 30 

31.  Apparatus  to  show  that  liquid  pressure  increases  with  the 

depth 33 

32.  Apparatus  to  show  that  the  increase  of  liquid  pressure  is 

proportional  to  the  depth 33 

33.  Apparatus  to  show  that  at  any  given  depth  in  a  liquid  the 

pressure  is  the  same  in  all  directions 35 

34.  Apparatus  for  illustrating  buoyancy  and  the  transmission  of 

pressure  through  liquids 36 

35.  Apparatus  to  show  the  transmission  of  water  pressure  by 

an  air  column 36 

37a.  Apparatus   to  illustrate   total   fluid   pressure  in  a   closed 

vessel 37 

38.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  reaction  of  a  jet  of  water 38 

39.  Student's  lamp 39 

40.  Fountain  sponge-cup 39 


Table  of  Contents.  v 

PAGE 

41.  Lifting-pump 40 

42.  Force  pump 41 

43.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  moment  of  a  force 41 

44.  Apparatus  illustrating  the  second  law  of  motion 42 

45.  Centre  of  gravity  disk 43 

46.  Apparatus    to   show  the   specific   gravity    of  liquids    when 

measured  by  their  buoyant  force 43 

47.  Apparatus  to  show  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids  when  bal- 

anced against  atmospheric  pressure 43 

49.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  osmose 44 

51.  Apparatus  for  illustrating  the  formation  of  ice  crystal  in  a 

snowstorm 45 

53.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  unequal   expansion   of  different 

metals  when  heated 46 

54.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  expansion  of  liquids  by  heat — 

Thermometer 46 

55  and  553.   Apparatus  to  illustrate   the   expansion    of   air   by 

heat — Air  thermometer 47 

56  and  57.   Apparatus  to  show  how  air-currents  are  produced 

by  heat 47 

58.  Apparatus  to  show  that  water  and  air  are  poor  conductors 

of  heat 49 

59.  Funnel  for  hot  filtration 49 

60.  Illustration  of  bunsen  burner 50 

6r.  Illustration  of  blastlamp,  blowpipe,  etc 50 

62.  "  Fish-tail  "  burner 51 

63-65.  Tumbler  and  plunger  batteries 51 

66.  Telegraph  sounder 53 

68.  Apparatus  for  decomposing  liquids  by  an  electric  current...  54 

69.  Electric  motor 55 

70.  Annunciator  and  electric  bell .  56 

71.  Burglar-alarm v. 58 

72.  Primary  and  secondary  coils 58 

73.  Telephone 59 

75.  Electroscope 59 


vi  Table  QJ' Contents. 

PAGE 

76.  Electrophorus. .  , .   59 

77.  Leyden  jar 60 

79.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  that  air  or  some  medium  is  neces- 
sary to  transmit  sound. : 60 

80-91.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  subject  of  light 60 


PART  IV. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  APPARA  TUS. 

92.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  action  of  muscles , .  61 

93.  Apparatus  to  show  the  action  of  the  intercostal  muscles  to 

enlarge  the  chest  cavity 62 

94.  Apparatus  to   show  how  inhalation   and  exhalation  result 

from  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  chest  cavity. .   63 

95.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the 

lymph 66 

96.  Apparatus  to  show  how  muscular  action  assists  the  circula- 

tion of  the  blood  in  the  veins  and  the  flow  of  the  lymph 
in  the  lymphatics 69 

97.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  how  the  tension  of  the  air  in  the  in- 

terior of   the  ear  is  adjusted  to  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure. 


HOME-MADE    APPARATUS. 


PART  I.    COURSE  IN  GLASS-WORKING. 

i.  Bending  Glass  Tubing.— Small  glass  tubing  may 
be  bent  in  an  ordinary  gas  or  kerosene-lamp  flame,  but  an 
alcohol  lamp  or  Bunsen  burner  is  preferred.  The  glass 
should  be  well  softened,  by  heating  it  in  the  flame,  before 
attempting  to  bend  it.  If,  for 
example,  the  end  a  (figure  i)  is 
one  and  one-half  inches  from 
the  flame,  the  tube'  ought  to  be 
softened  enough  so  that  it  will 
bend  down  of  its  own  weight.  FlG-  r- 

At  first  keep  the  tube  constantly  rolling,  so  as  to 
heat  it  on  all  sides,  but  when  it  begins  to  bend  cease 
rolling,  and  move  it  a  little  to  the  right  and  left,  to 
heat  the  adjacent  parts.  Do  not  let  it  bend  rapidly, 
By  moving  it  to  the  right  and  left  occasionally  you 
may  keep  it  bending  slowly  in  as  gradual  a  curve  as 
you  may  desire.  Figure  2  represents  a  tube  bent 
thus.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  hot  part  of  the 
flame  is  at  the  outer  edges,  where  the  combustible  vapors 
come  in  contact  with  the  air.  A  tube,  therefore,  if  kept 
perfectly  still  in  a  flame,  would  be  liable  to  bend  as 

5 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


represented  in  figure  3,  because  it  would  be  softened 
chiefly  at  the  points  c  and  d.  In  this  matter  perfection 
can  be  reached  only  by  much  practice.  Patience  rather 
than  skill  is  the  requisite  capital.  Hence  there  is  no 
reason  why  any  one  may  not  bend  glass  tubing  sufficiently 
well  for  all  practical  purposes. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


Only  small  tubing,  whose  inside  diameter  does  not 
exceed  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch,  can  be  readily  bent 
in  an  alcohol  flame;  and  for  this  purpose  the  wick  must 
be  drawn  up  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  and  the 
tube  must  be  held  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  flame,  which 
is  the  upper  third.  Glass  tubing  is  quite  inexpensive. 
It  should  not  cost  over  fifty  cents  a  pound,  and  a  pound 
of  the  size  mentioned  above  contains  about  twenty-five 
feet. 

2.  Drawing  and  Closing  Glass  Tubing — Hold  one 
end  in  each  hand  and  keep  the  tube  rolling  continually 
while  holding  it  in  the  flame,  so  as  to  soften  it  all  around. 


Course  in  Glass-working  7 

When  it  has  become  quite  soft  remove  it  from  the  flame 

and     pull.       You     will 

readily  draw   it    out,  as 

represented  in  figure  5. 

Make      a     very      slight 

scratch  at  a  with  a  three- 
cornered  file  and  break 

the  tube  at  that  point.     Finish  the  broken  ends  by  hold- 
ing them  for  an  instant 

.. ^^  in  the  flame.    With  care 

FlG  you  will  be  able  to  melt 

the  ends  so  as  to  make 

them  smooth,  without  bending  or  closing  them.    The  end 

ac  will  serve  many  useful  purposes  as  a  "dropper-tube,"  if 

a  small  rubber  bulb  called  a  x — -^ 

"  dropper-bulb"  is  put  upon  the 

end  c.    The  end  ab  may  be  used  FlG-  6- 

for  throwing  jets  of  water,  as  illustrated  in  figure  40,  p.  29. 
One  is  always  obliged  to   proceed   according  to  the 

above  directions  in  order  to  close  large  tubing;  and 
by  this  method  I  have  even  drawn  apart  an  argand- 
lamp  chimney.  It  was  necessary  to  smoke  the 
chimney  all  around  first  and  then  to  heat  gradually 
with  constant  rolling. 

A  very  much  better  way,  however,  to  deal  with 
small  tubing  is  as  follows :  Hold  the  tube  so  that 
the  end  projects  not  more  than  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  into  the  flame,  and  keep  it  rolling  slowly,  so  as 
to  heat  it  uniformly  on  all  sides.  It  will  soon  close 

FIG.?,  up  entirely;  or,  if  you  want  a  tube  for  throwing 

jets  of  water,  arrest  the  process  just  before  the  tube  is 


8  Home-made  Apparatus. 

quite  closed,  leaving  a  little  hole  in  the  end.  This 
method  has  two  advantages  over  the  other, 

described  on  p. .  First,  this  will  throw 

a  straight  stream,  while  in  most  cases  the 
other  will  not ;  and,  secondly,  this  will  be 
FIG.  8.  thick  and  strong  at  the  end,  while  the 

other  will  be  very  thin  and  quite  liable  to  get  broken. 

3.  Blowing  Bulbs. — In  order  to  blow  a  bulb  at  the 
end  of  a  glass  tube,  hold  the  end  of  the  tube,  as  shown 
in  figure  8,  so  as  to  project  a  slight  distance  into  the 
flame.    Roll  it  slowly  until  it  is  entirely  closed  and  raised 
to  a  red-heat.    Close  the  lips  air-tight  over  the  other  end, 
remove  it  from  the  flame,  and  quickly  force  air  into  it, 
taking  great  care  to  stop  blowing  before  the  bulb  bursts. 

4.  Cutting  Glass  Tubing,  Bottles,  etc. — For  tubing 
under  half  an  inch  in  diameter  use  a  three-cornered  file 
and  give  it  a  sharp,  quick  push  across  the  tube  so  as  to  leave 
a  scratch,  or,  if  the  tube  is  over  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  file  a  rather  deep  gash,  then  place  your  thumbs 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tube  and  pull  suddenly  as 


FIG.  10. 

if  to  bend  the  tube.  It  will  break  exactly  where  you 
intended  and  leave  an  even,  smooth  surface  at  the  end, 
having,  however,  sharp  cutting  edges.  These  should  be 


Course  in  Glass-working. 


trimmed  a  little  with  a  file  or  held  in  a  flame  until  they 

are  nicely  rounded. 

For  tubing  over  half  an  inch  in  diameter  pursue  the 

same  plan   as  for   cutting  glass  bottles.      To  cut  glass 

bottles :    Thrust  the  stove  poker  into  the  fire  and,  while 

it  is  heating,  cut  quite  a  deep  gash 

in  one  side  of  the  bottle  with  a  wet 

file.     This  will  give  the  right  direc 

tion  to  the  crack  which  you  are  about 

to  make.   Touch  the  hot  poker  to  the 

glass  at  one  end  of  this  gash,  and 

a  short  crack  will  start  in  the  direc- 
tion required.     Now  place  the  poker 

so  that  it  will  touch  the  glass  about 

one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  end 

of  the  crack  and  it  will  slowly  creep 

up   to    the   poker.     Thus  one    may 

lead  it  at  will.     The  bottom  of  this 

bottle  will  make  a  glass  jar  and  the  top  will  have  a  great 

many  uses.     See  Fig.  12. 

For  very  thick  bottles  one  needs  a  red-hot  iron,  but 

for  thin  glass  it  should  not  be  red-hot,  because  the  crack 

will  sometimes  run  faster  than  one  can  control  it.  With 
proper  care  we  may  cut  glass  by 
this  method  into  any  shape  which 
we  may  desire.  It  is  often  desir- 
able to  mark  out  the  course  on  the 
glass  with  the  sharp  point  of  a  wet 
black-board  crayon  to  help  the  eye 
in  leading  the  crack.  By  this 
method  I  have  cut  from  a  pane  of 


FIG.  ii. 


FIG.  12. 


10 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


glass  scale-pans  for  home-made  balances.  In  this  case 
it  is  necessary  to  file  a  gash  at  the  edge  and  start  the 
crack  there.  See  Fig.  13. 

One  may  lead  a  crack  around  a  moderately  thin  bottle 
or  lamp  chimney  by  a  glass  rod  or 
tube  heated  in  an  alcohol  or  Bun- 
sen  burner  flame.  This  is  the 
most  convenient  way  to  do  it  in 
the  laboratory.  The  glass  rod, 
being  a  poor  conductor  of  heat, 
does  not  cool  off  as  rapidly  as  an 
iron  rod,  and  does  not  conduct 
F16-  T3-  heat  to  the  hand. 

5.  To  Bore  Holes  in  Glass. — Break  off  the  tip  end  of  a 
round  file,  sometimes  called  a  "  rat-tail "  file.  With  this 
we  may  readily  bore  holes  in  glass.  Hold  the  file  as 
represented  in  Fig.  14, 
bearing  on  heavily  with 
the  thumb.  Swing  the 
file  back  and  forth  hor- 
izontally, as  indicated 
by  the  arrows,  at  the 
same  time  giving  it  a 
twisting  motion.  The 
file  should  be  fre- 
quently dipped  into  FlG-  I4' 
water.  A  paste  made  of  camphor-gum  and  turpentine 
has  been  widely  recommended  to  assist  the  file  in  cutting 
glass,  and  many  persons  have  paid  heavily  for  the  secret, 
but  it  would  seem  that  water  answers  the  purpose  quite 
as  well.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  anything  is  equally 


Course  in  Glass-working. 


good  which  will  retain  the  little  particles  of  glass  that 
have  been  clipped  off  and  make  them  cling  to  the  file  so 
that  they  may  be  made  to  assist  in  the  work.  It  requires 
between  five  and  ten  minutes  of  patient  work  to  make  a 
hole  through  the  side  of  an  ordinary  bottle.  After  the 
hole  has  been  put  through  the  glass  it  may  be  trimmed 
out  with  a  wet,  round  file  to  any  -.;ize  desired.  Here, 
however,  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  cracking 
the  bottle. 

Glass  tubing  may  be  made  to  fit  in  such  a  hole  water- 
tight by  making  the  hole  a  little  larger 
than  the  tube,  then  by  drawing  a  small 
piece  of  soft  rubber  tubing  over  the  end 
of  the  glass  tube  and  crowding  it  firmly 
into  the  hole.  (See  figure  15.) 

A  cap  which  will  answer  the  purpose 
of  a  stop-cock  in  many  instances  may 
be  constructed  as  follows  :  Take  a  short 
piece  of  rubber  tubing  and  plug  one 
end  with  a  very  short  piece  of  glass  rod 


ill 


FIG.  15. 


or  tubing  closed  at  one  end  in  the  flame. 

It  is  evident  thai:  when  one  can  bend,  draw,  and  close 
glass  tubing,  cut  glass  as  he  chooses,  bore  holes  in  bottles 
and  fit  tubes  in  them  water-tight,  the  way  is  open  to  con- 
struct an  endless  variety  of  apparatus. 


12 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


PART  II.    CHEMICAL  APPARATUS. 

No.  7.*  The  Oxygen  Apparatus — In  the  test-tube, 
figure  1 6,  which  suffices  for  a  retort,  is  put  about  a  table- 


FIG.  16. 

spoonful  of  the  usual  mixture  of  potassium  chlorate  and 
manganese  dioxide.  This  will  yield  six  or  eight  bottles- 
ful  of  oxygen,  and  is  the  only  gas  holder  that  is  necessary. 
The  bottle  is  the  only  bell-far  needed,  and  the  tin  basin 
answers  every  purpose  of  a  pneumatic  trough.  To  hold 
the  apparatus  in  the  hands,  moving  the  test-tube  back 
and  forth  through  the  flame,  is  preferable  to  the  use  of 
a  retort-stand.  The  test-tube  is  6  X  f  inches.  The  stop- 
per is  a  No.  i  rubber  stopper,  with  one  hole  in  it.  The 

*  All  the  pieces  of  apparatus  described  in  these  pages  were 
prepared  by  the  author  and  placed  on  exhibition  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893.  The  State  of  New  York 
purchased  from  him  the  entire  set,  and  it  is  now  installed  in  the 
Educational  Museum,  State  Capitol,  Albany,  N.  Y.  The  numbers 
used  in  the  description  of  apparatus  throughout  this  book  corre- 
spond to  those  which  are  used  to  designate  the  models  in  that 
exhibit. 


Chemical  Apparatus. 


delivery  tube  is  T\  inch  glass  tubing  and  is  bent  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  given  on  page  5. 

A  comparison   of  the  expense  of  this  apparatus  with 
that  of  apparatus  much  in  vogue  is  given  herewith  : 

COST. 


The  Conventional  Apparatus. 
Cheapest  Kind. 

A  copper  retort •  .$  2.30 

A  gas  holder 15.00 

A  bell-jar 50 

A  pneumatic  trough. .  .  .     1.50 

A  retort-stand 65 

Rubber  tubing  for  con- 
nection and  delivery 
tubes .20 


Home-made  Apparatus. 

A  test-tube,  6Xi  in $0.03 

None  needed oo 

A  bottle,8oz.,  wide  mouth     .05 
A  basin,  block  tin,  6  in...     .05 

None  needed oo 

Rubber  stopper  No.   i 04 

Delivery  tube. ,    01 


$20.15  $0.18 

The  same  apparatus  is  used  in  generating  hydrogen, 
nitrous  oxide,  nitric  oxide,  hydrogen  sulphide,  carbon  di- 
oxide, etc.  To  generate  chlorine,  substitute  the  small 
flask  from  apparatus  No.  18  in  place  of  the  test-tube,  on 
account  of  the  frothing  produced  by  that  gas. 

No  8.  Gas   Generator. — This    apparatus   is   specially 
adapted  as  a   hydrogen-sulphide   generator. 
The   bottle   is  an    eight-ounce,  wide-mouth 
bottle,  with  a  common  cork,  through  which 
a  hole  is  cut  with  a  pen-knife,  large  enough 
to  receive  a  test-tube.     The  test-tube  fits  the 
hole  loosely  enough  to  be  easily  raised  and 
lowered,  but  not  so  as  to   fall   of    its    own 
weight.     The  test-tube  has    a   rubber   stop- 
per, through  the  hole  of  which   a  delivery- 
tube  passes.     There  is  a  small  hole  not  more       FIG.  17. 
than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  in  the  bottom  of 
the  test-tube,  made  as  follows  : 


14  Home-made  Apparatus. 

The  test-tube  is  held  so  that  the  bottom  touches  the 
side  of  a  flame,  and  when  the  glass  at  a  single  point  be- 
comes softened,  the  mouth  of  the  operator  is  closed  over 
the  open  end  of  the  tube  and  the  hole 
is  blown  while  the  tube  is  still  held 
in  the  flame.  The  edges  of  the  hole 
are  soon  melted  back  and  made 
smooth  by  the  flame.  The  bottle  is 

"Fir*    tfi 

about  half  filled  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  a  few  small  lumps  of  iron  sulphide  are  placed 
in  the  test-tube.  When  the  test-tube  is  pushed  down, 
the  acid  passes  through  the  small  hole  in  the  bottom  and 
comes  in  contact  with  the  iron  sulphide.  Hydrogen 
sulphide  then  flows  through  the  delivery-tube.  When 
the  test-tube  is  drawn  up  as  represented  in  figure  17,  the 
acid  flows  out  through  the  small  hole  and  the  generation 
of  hydrogen  sulphide  ceases.  Thus  we  have  a  gas  gen- 
erator always  ready  for  use.  It  may  be  used  for  any  of 
the  gases  which  are  generated  by  acids  without  the  appli- 
cation of  heat. 

Cost.  —  Bottle  from  apparatus  No.  7. 

Test-tube,  6 Xf  in Scents 

Rubber  stopper  from  apparatus  No.   7. 

Cork  and  delivery  tube , . . ..     7  cents 


No.  9.  Gas  Generator. — This  apparatus  is  convenient 
when  only  a  small  quantity  of  gas  is 
needed.  It  consists  of  a  one-ounce 
wide-mouth  bottle  and  a  small  glass 
dish.  To  generate  a  bottleful  of  car- 
bon dioxide,  a  small  lump  of  chalk  or  FlG* 


Chemical  Apparatus. 


limestone  is  put  into  the  bottle,  and  the  bottle  is  filled 
with  dilute  acid.  The  bottle  is  then  covered  with  the 
glass  dish,  and  inverted.  No  delivery-tube  and  no 
pneumatic  trough  are  needed. 

Cost. — Glass  dish 5  cents 

Bottle,  i  oz.,  wide  mouth 2  cents 


7  cents 

No.  10.  Gas  Generator. — This  apparatus  is  specially 
adapted  to  the  generating  of  small  quantities  of  gases 
with  a  high  degree  of  heat ;  e.g., 
the  making  of  oxygen  from  mer- 
curic oxide.  The  bottle  and  glass 
dish  are  those  used  in  apparatus  9. 
Five  inches  of  small  glass  tubing 
closed  at  one  end,  and  bent,  as 
indicated  in  figure  20,  serves  as  retort  and  delivery-tube. 

No.  ii.  Gas  Generator  with  a  Condensing  Cham- 
ber.— This  apparatus  has  an  important  use  in  experi- 
ments in  destructive  distillation  ;  e.g.,  if  we  put  paper, 


FIG.  20. 


FIG.  21. 

wood,  or  soft  coal  in  the  test-tube  and  heat  it  we  shall 
get  liquid  products  in  the  small  bottle  and  gaseous 
products  in  the  large  bottle. 


1 6  Home-made  Apparatus. 

Cost— Test-tube,  "] 

Rubber  stopper  No.  i,  I   FrQm  tus  No   ?> 

Tin  basin, 

8-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle,   J 

i-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle  from  apparatus  No.  g. 

Rubber  stopper  No.  3  with  two  holes 7  cents 

Delivery  tubes 2  cents 


9  cents 

Nc.  12.  Apparatus  for  Showing  that  a  Portion  of 
the  Air  is  Consumed  in  Combustion.— A  strip  of  tin  is 
bent  at  a  right  angle  at  the  lower  end  so  as  to  support  a 
small  piece  of  a  taper.     The  upper  end  is  also 
bent  at  a  right  angle  and  is  tacked  to  the  under 
surface  of  the  rubber  stopper,  which  it  protects 
from   the  flame.      Lime-water  is  used  in  the 
tumbler   beneath   the  chimney  to  absorb  the 
products  of  combustion.    The  candle  attached 
to  the  stopper  is  taken  out,  lighted,  and  re- 
placed.    Thus  a  portion  of  the  air  is  not  lost 
from  the  chimney  by  expansion,  as  is  usually 
IG.  22.    tjje-  case   wjien   a  ]3Otjie  [s   inverted  over  a 

lighted  candle  in  a  dish  of  water. 

Cost. — Lamp-chimney 5  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  7 20  cents 

Tumbler 5  cents 


30  cents 

No.  13.  Apparatus  for  Determining  the  Proportion  of 
Oxygen  in  the  Air. — A  small  piece  of  clean  phosphorus 
is  placed  upon  the  wire-shelf  and  the  test-tube  is  in- 
verted over  it,  with  its  mouth  dipping  into  the  water 
beneath.  After  standing  thus  for  a  day  or  two  the 
water  will  be  found  to  have  risen  so  as  to  occupy  about 


Chemical  Apparatus. 


one  fifth  of  the  volume  of  the  test-tube.     Measurements 

carefully  made  were  found  to  be,  as  shown  in  the  figure, 

Vol.  of  oxygen 


to 


1.2 

5-7 


—  21  per  cent. 


yol.  of  air 

At  the  close  of  the  experiment  the  flame  of  a 
lamp  may  be  directed  toward  the  upper  end  of  the 
test-tube  until  the  phosphorus  melts  and  runs  down  the 
wire  without  burning  or  producing  the  white  fumes 


FIG.  23.  FIG.  24. 

which  would  appear  if  oxygen  were  present.  The  test- 
tube  may  now  be  lifted,  while  the  phosphorus  is  thus 
heated  above  its  kindling  temperature,  and  it  will  im- 
mediately spring  into  a  flame. 

The  wire  support  for  the  phosphorus  is  made  of  No. 
1 8  copper  wire,  which  is  easily  bent  with  the  fingers  in 
the  form  represented  by  figure.  24. 

Cost. — Test-tube  from  apparatus  No.  7. 

Small  tumbler 5  cents 

No.  14.  The  Miner's  Safety  Lamp — wire  gauze, 
such  as  is  used  for  milk-strainers  or  fine  sieves  (30  or  40 
meshes  to  the  inch),  six  inches  square,  is  rolled  into  a 


i8 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


cylinder  about  an  inch  in  diameter  and  tied  with  wire, 
common-  corks   are   fitted   nicely  into   the 
ends,  a  very  small  taper  is  fastened  to  the 
lower  cork  by  a  drop  of   its   own  melted 
wax.     Coal-gas,  or  a  little  ether,  is  put  into 
the  large  bottle,  which  in  this  case  repre- 
sents a  coal  m;ne  in  which  a  combustible 
gas  has  collected  ;  the  candle  is  lighted  and 
!U^  put  into  the  wire-gauze  cylinder  and  lowered 
FIG.  25.      into  the  bottle  without  setting  fire  to  the 

gas,  but  if  the  uncovered  flame  is  brought  to  the  mouth 

of  the  bottle  a  flash  occurs. 

A  little  lime-water  is  then  put  into  the  bottle,  showing 

the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide,  which  has  been  formed 

by  the  combustion. 

Cost. — Wire  gauze,  cork,  and  taper. ...   15  cents 
32-oz.  wide-mouth  bottle 17  cents 


32  cents 

No.  15.  Test-tube  Rack — The  rack  is  made  of  thin 
strips  of  wood,  two  inches  wide  ;  the  uprights  four  and 


FIG.  26. 


a  half  inches  high  and  the  horizontal  strips  twelve  and 
thirteen  inches  respectively.  In  the  upper  strip,  six  holes 
are  bored  with  a  seven-eighth-inch  bit.  In  the  lower 


Chemical  Apparatus.  19 

strip,  underneath  each  of  these  holes,  a  cup  is  made  with 
a  countersink  to  receive  the  lower  end  of  the  test-tube. 

No.  16.  Test-tube  Tongs. — The  test-tube  tongs  are 
made  of  two  strips  of  wood  each  about  nine  inches  long  and 
half  an  inch  thick,  cut  as  represented  in  figure  27.     They 
are  held  together  by  stout  rubber  bands — no  hinge  is 
needed — which  are  represented  in  the  figure  as  placed  so 
as   to   cause   the   tongs   to 
close.     They  are  opened  by  g!&^^:^|ggg:-d[[i^Z 
a    slight    pressure    of    the 
hand  upon  the  large  end. 

If,  however,  one  prefers  tongs  which  ordinarily  remain 
open  and  require  a  slight  pressure  of  the  hand  to  close 
them,  the  rubber  bands  may  be  moved  somewhat  nearer 
the  large  end  and  the  tongs  will  so  operate. 
No.  17.  Blow-pipe — The  blow-pipe  is  made  of  two 
pieces  of  glass  tubing,  each  about  four 
inches  long,  one   of  which  is   nearly 
closed  at  one  end,  as  described  on  page 
7.     The  two  pieces  of  glass  tubing  are 
connected  by  a  piece   of  soft  rubber 
—  —*    tubing.    This  enables  one  to  direct  the 
FIG.  28.  stream  of  air  from  the  blow-pipe  as  he 

chooses. 

Cost. — Rubber  tubing  from  apparatus  No.  8. 

Glass  tubing I  cent 

No.  18.  Distilling  Apparatus.— This  is  used  in  mak- 
ing nitric  acid,  hydrochloric-acid  solution,  ammonia  solu- 
tion, and  bromine,  as  well  as  separating  alcohol  from 
water  and  obtaining  from  solution  distilled  water  in 
small  quantities. 


20 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


A  test-tube  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  the  flask. 
The  latter,  however,  is  preferred 
when  frothing  is  liable  to  occur. 
The  delivery-tube  is  made  of  such 
a  length  as  to  reach  within  about 
one  inch  of  the  bottom  of  the  test- 
tube  in  which  the  vapors  are  con- 
FIG.  29.  densed.  The  distillate  which  is 

collected  in  the  test-tube  is  never  allowed  to  cover  the 
end  of  this  delivery-tube — the  amount  needed  for  each 
pupil  is  very  small. 

To  make  hydrochloric  acid  or  ammonia  solution,  a 
little  water  is  put  into  the  test-tube,  not  quite  up  to  the 
end  of  the  delivery  tube.  This  water  absorbs  the  gas  as 
fast  as  it  is  generated. 

Cost. — 8-oz.  wide-mouth  bottle,  ) 

Test-tube,  >  From  apparatus  No.  7. 

Rubber  stopper,  No.  i,  ) 

2-oz.  flask ii  cents 

Delivery  tube i  cent 


CO  I 


HzO 


No.  19.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Water  may  be 
Produced  by  Passing  Hydrogen  over  Hot  Copper  Oxide. 
— The  hydrogen  is  allowed 
to  flow  through  the  tube  for 
a  time  to  show  that  moisture 
is  not  deposited  from  the  gas, 
and  hence  no  drying  tubes 
are  needed.  A  flame  is  then 
placed  under  the  end  of  the 
tube  containing  the  copper 
oxide  and  water  is  produced. 


FIG.  30. 


Chemical  Apparatus.  2 1 

Cost. — 8-oz.  narrow-mouthed  bottle 5  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  o,  with  one  hole 3  cents 

Delivery  tube i  cent 

9  cents 

No.  20.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Hydrogen  may  be 
Produced  by  Passing  Steam  over  Hot  Iron  Filings.— 

In  using  the  apparatus  one  hand  holds  the  tin  basin 
and  steadies  the  bottle  and  the  other  hand  holds  the 
lamp  under  the  end  of  the  test-tube.  It  is  preferable 


FIG.  31. 

not  to  lock  the  apparatus  in  a  support  stand,  but  to  have 
it  entirely  in  hand.  If  the  rubber  stopper  is  pressed 
firmly  into  the  mouth  of  the  flask,  there  is  no  danger 
of  the  flask  falling  without  a  support. 

Hydrogen  sulphide  may  be  collected  in  the  bottle  by 
generating  hydrogen  in  the  flask  and  heating  sulphur  in 
the  test-tube.  In  this  case  the  melted  sulphur  should  be 
kept  in  the  end  of  the  test-tube  remote  from  the  rubber 
stopper  by  tilting  the  apparatus  slightly. 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


Cost. — 8-oz.  wide-mouth  bottle,  1 

Tin-basin,  I   From  apparatus 

Test-tube,  f      No.  7. 

Rubber  stopper  No.  i  with  one  hole,  J 
2  oz.  flask  from  apparatus  No.  18. 

Rubber  stopper  No.  I  with  two  holes 4  cents 

Delivery-tubes 2  cents 

Extra  lamp 45  cents 

51  cents 

No.  21.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Oxygen  or  Chlorine 
will  Burn  in  Hydrogen.  — Hydrogen  is  collected  in  the 

eight-ounce  bottle  by  using 
apparatus  No.  7.  The  ma- 
terial to  generate  oxygen  or 
chlorine  is  put  into  the  flask 
and  heated.  The  hydrogen 
is  lighted  at  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  and  the  delivery- 
tube  slowly  thrust  up  into 
it,  when  a  flame  will  be  seen 
burning  at  the  end  of  the 
delivery  -  tube.  The  upper 
end  of  the  bottle  is  held  in 
one  hand,  while  the  neck  of 
the  flask  is  held  in  the  other. 
The  apparatus  is  tilted  to 
prevent  the  burning  of  the  hands  by  the  flame. 

To  burn  hydrogen  in  oxygen  or  chlorine,  we  have 
merely  to  substitute  the  delivery-tube  from  the  apparatus 
represented  in  figure  29,  collect  oxygen  or  chlorine  in  the 
eight-ounce  bottle  by  using  apparatus  No  7,  and  gen- 
erate hydrogen  in  the  flask.  The  hydrogen  must  be 


FIG.  32. 


Chemical  Apparatus.  23 

allowed  to  flow  rapidly  for  a  few  minutes  to  remove  air 
from  the  flask,  in  order  that  there  may  be  no  explosion. 
We  fill  the  flask  one- quarter  full  and  add  about  one-third 
as  much  sulphuric  acid.  Drop  in  granulated  zinc  while 
the  mixture  is  warm,  and  the  hydrogen  will  flow  rapidly. 
The  hydrogen  flame  burning  in  the  bottle  produces  a 
musical  sound. 

Cost. — 8  oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle,  )  r-  XT 

Rubber  stopper  No.  i,         \  From  aPPara'us  No  7. 

2-oz.  flask,  from  apparatus  No.  18. 

Delivery-tube i  cent. 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


PART  III.    PHYSICAL  APPARATUS. 

No.  22.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Air  Occupies  Space 
to  the  Exclusion  of  Other  Things.—  The  funnel  is  made 
of  paper.  The  opening  in  the  lower  end  is  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  Dip  the  funnel  in  water  and 
fit  it  air-tight  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The 
funnel  may  be  filled  with  water,  and  after  about 
a  tablespoonful  has  passed  into  the  bottle 
it  will  cease  to  flow,  unless  a  bubble  of  air 
comes  out,  when  only  the  same  amount  of 
water  will  pass  in.  Put  water  on  the  top  of  the 
bottle,  outside  of  the  funnel.  (If  the  funnel 
was  sufficiently  wet  this  will  collect  there  of  its 
own  accord.)  Now  press  the  side  of  the  fun- 
nel in  a  little,  so  that  you  may  see  a  little  air  bubble  out 
through  the  water.  Notice  that  at  the  same  time  a  small 
amount  of  water  flows  from  the  funnel  into  the  bottle. 

No.  23.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Invisible  Substances 
May  Have  Weight. — Make  a  paper  box  five  inches  long, 
three  inches  wide,  and  two  and  one-half  inches  deep, 
from   a  sheet    of   writing- 
paper,  letter  size,  or  8X  10. 
Place  this  upon  one  end  of 
a  foot  rule,  laid  across  a 
three  -  cornered    piece   of 
wood,    the     thickness     of- 
which  should  be  not  more 
than  one-quarter  of  an  inch.     While  it  is  impossible  to 


FIG.  33. 


Physical  Apparatus. 


balance  the  ruler  across  this  piece  of  wood,  it  may  be  so 
nearly  balanced  as  to  tip  either  way  with  the  addition  of 
an  exceedingly  small  weight.  Put  a  few  drops  of  ether 
into  a  tumbler,  and  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes  until  they 
evaporate  and  the  tumbler  is  filled  with  ether  vapor,  then 
hold  the  tumbler  as  if  in  the  act  of  pouring  something 
from  it  into  the  box.  Soon  the  box  will  press  its  end  of 
the  ruler  down,  and  if  a  lighted  match  is  brought  to  its 
mouth  a  flash  occurs,  showing  that  the  ether  vapor  was 
poured  into  it. 

No.  24.  Receiver  for  Experiments  in  Rarefied  and 
Condensed  Air. — Figure  35  represents  a  32-ounce  wide- 
mouthed  bottle,  E.  &  A.  style.  In  its  mouth  is  a  No.  10 
rubber  stopper,  one  hole  of  which  is 
plugged  with  a  short  piece  of  glass  rod, 
while  the  other  carries  a  bent  glass  tube, 
over  which  is  drawn  a  piece  of  heavy 
rubber  tubing,  called  "  pressure  tubing," 
about  eighteen  inches  long.  This  an- 
swers all  the  purposes  of  a  receiver.  For 
very  many  experiments  it  is  sufficient  to 
apply  one's  mouth  to  the  rubber  tube  and 
exhaust  or  compress  the  air  in  the  bottle 
by  the  use  of  the  lungs.  With  practice, 
the  average  person  may  thus  reduce  the 
tension  of  the  air  to  seven  or  eight  pounds  per  square 
inch,  or  increase  it  to  seventeen  or  eighteen  pounds  per 
square  inch.  When  a  greater  degree  of  exhaustion  or 
compression  of  air  is  needed,  the  rubber  tube  is  attached 
to  one  or  the  other  nipple  of  a  combination  of  air- 


FIG.  .35. 


26  Home-made  Apparatus. 

pump  and  condenser,  sold  by  the  Franklin  Educational 
Company,  of  Boston,  for  $3. 

Cost. — 32-oz.  wide-mouth  bottle,  E.  &  A.  style,  from 
apparatus  No.  14. 

Rubber  stopper  No.  10 39  cents 

Rubber  "  pressure  "  tubing,  18  inches 24  cents 

63  cents 

Nos.  25,  26,  and  27.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  the 
Volume  of  Air  Varies  as  the  Pressure  upon  it  Increases 
or  Decreases. — No.  25  consists  of  a  one-ounce  wide- 
mouth  bottle,  over  the  mouth  of  which  rubber  cloth  is 
tied  air-tight.  The  bottle  is  then  placed  in  the  receiver, 
No.  24,  and  when  the  air  in  the  receiver  is  rarefied  the 
rubber  cloth  bulges  outward,  and  when  air  is  condensed 
in  the  receiver  the  rubber  cloth  sags  into  the  neck  of 
the  small  bottle. 

No.  26  consists  of  a  one-ounce  narrow-mouth  bottle 
(figure  36),  into  the  mouth  of  which  a  glass  tube,  three 
or   four   inches   long,  is   fitted   by  the   method 
described  on  p.  for  inserting  a  glass  tube 

into  a  hole  in  a  bottle.  This  tube  is  nearly 
closed  at  the  upper  end.  Water  is  put  into  the 
bottle  and  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  dips  into  it. 
When  this  apparatus  is  placed  in  the  receiver 
and  the  air  rarefied  water  spurts  out  of  the  small 
bottle  as  a  fountain.  When  air  is  allowed  to 
~  ~  rush  into  the  receiver  again,  it  is  seen  to  enter 
also  the  small  bottle  by  bubbles  which  pass 
through  the  water.  When  air  is  condensed  into  the 
receiver,  it  is  seen  to  enter  the  small  bottle  and,  when 
the  compressed  air  is  allowed  to  flow  out  of  the  receiver, 


Physical  Apparatus. 


27 


FIG.  37- 


water  again  spurts  from  the  small  bottle.     In  figure  37  the 

glass  tube  is  inverted,  so  that  the  con- 
stricted end  is  inside  the  bottle,  and  a 

iittle  water  is  put  into  the  receiver  so  as 

to  seal  the  outer  end  of  the  tube.     A 

fountain  will  play  into  the  small  bottle 

when  air  is  compressed  into  the  receiver, 

and   air  will   pass    out  from    the   small 

bottle  when  it  is  allowed  to  flow  out  of 

the  receiver.     It  continues   to  pass  out 

of  the  small  bottle  as  we  exhaust  it  from 

the    receiver,    but    the    fountain    plays 

again  in  the  small  bottle  when   the  air 

is  allowed  to  enter  the  receiver. 

No.  27  consists  of  a  one-ounce  narrow-mouthed  bottle, 

into  the  mouth  of  which  a  bent  glass  tube  is  fitted 
by  the  method  referred  to  above. 
Water  is  put  into  the  small  bottle  and 
the  glass  tube  dips  into  it.  When  this 
apparatus  is  placed  in  the  receiver, 
(figure  38),  the  outer  end  of  the  tube  is 
covered  with  water,  and  when  the  air  in 
the  receiver  is  rarefied  water  is  forced 
out  of  the  small  bottle  by  the  tension 
of  the  air  contained  in  it.  When  air  is 
allowed  to  rush  into  the  receiver  again 
water  flows  into  the  small  bottle.  If  air 
is  compressed  into  the  receiver,  water 

flows  into  the  small  bottle,  and,  when  the  compressed 

air    is    released,    water    passes    out    from    the    small 

bottle. 


FIG.  38. 


28 


Home-made  Apparatus. 

Cost. — i-oz.  narrow-mouthed  bottle 2  cents 

Tubing 2  cents 

Rubber  cloth 2  cents 

Receiver   from  App.   No.   14  and  i-oz. 
wide-mouthed  bottle  from  App.  No.  9. 


6  cents 

No.  28.  Apparatus  to  Demonstrate  that  the  Volume 
of  a  Gas  Varies  Inversely  as  the  Pressure  upon  it.— 
A  glass  tube,  whose  inside  diameter  is  one-quarter  of  an 
inch,  and  whose  length  is  about  fifty-two  inches,  is 
closed  at  the  end  a  '(figure  39),  and  is  bent  so  that  ab  is 
3  inches,  be  is  2  inches,  cd  is  34  inches,  de  is  2  inches, 
and  ef\s>  about  n  inches  long.  The  end /is  left  open. 


FIG.  39. 

The  tube  is  fastened  to  a  strip  of  board  to  protect  it 
from  injury.  Mercury  is  put  into  the  tube  so  that  the 
column  when  horizontal  extends  from  g  to  h.  In  hand- 


Physical  Apparatus. 


29 


ling  mercury  we  use  a  dropper-tube  such  as  is  illustrated 
in  figure  6,  p.  7. 

To  find  volumes  corresponding  to  pressure  greater 
than  an  atmosphere  the  end  h  of  the  apparatus  is  raised 
to  various  positions  and  the  vertical  height  above  the 
table  of  the  mercury  column  in  each  arm  is  measured. 

To  find  volumes  corresponding  to  pressure  less  than 
an  atmosphere,  the  end  g  is  raised  and  measurements 
taken  as  above. 

Cost. — Glass  tubing 18  cents 

Mercury 35  cents 

53  cents 

No.  29.  Apparatus  to  Show  a  Fountain  Caused  by 
Atmospheric  Pressure  and  a  Fountain  Caused  by  Com- 
pressed Air. — It  consists  of  a  id-ounce  narrow-mouthed 


FIG.  40. 


30  Home-made  Apparatus. 

bottle,  a  No.  i  rubber  stopper,  a  piece  of  glass  tubing 
nine  inches  long,  nearly  closed  at  one  end,  a  short  piece 
of  rubber  tubing,  and  a  tumbler.  Either  the  lungs  of  the 
operator  or  the  air-pump  mentioned  on  p.  25  may  be  used 
to  rarefy  or  condense  the  air  in  the  bottle,  and  thumb  and 
finger  applied  to  the  rubber  tubing  serve  as  a  stop-cock. 
Problems  as  to  what  this  apparatus  would  do  if  taken 
up  in  a  balloon  or  down  in  a  coal  mine  are  of  interest, 
also  its  relation  to  air-guns,  spurting  oil-wells,  "  soda- 
water  fountains,"  "  syphon  "  bottles,  etc. 

Cost. — Rubber  stopper  No.  i  from  apparatus  No  7. 
Rubber  tubing  from  apparatus  No.  8. 
Tumbler  from  apparatus  No.  12. 

i6-oz.  narrow-mouthed  bottle 5  cents 

Glass  tube .   i  cent 


6  cents 

No.  30.  Barometer. — A  glass  tube,  having  an 
inside  diameter  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
and  a  length  about  forty-three  inches,  is  closed  at 
one  end  in  the  flame,  and  bent  so  that  the  long  arm 
is  about  thirty-five  inches  and  the  short  arm  about 
six  inches.     The  end  of  the  short  arm  is  left  open. 
Mercury  is  introduced  by  a  dropper  tube,  three  or 
four  inches  at  a  time,  and  boiled  by  passing  the 
barometer  tube  back   and  forth  through  a  flame 
each   time   a  charge  of  mercury  is  added.     The 
tube  is  fastened  to  a  board-back  for  protection, 
IG'41'  and  a  scale  is  attached  by  which  one  may  readily 
read  the  length  of  the  long  and  short  arms  of  the  mercury 
columns,  measured  from  a  small  shelf  at  the  bottom  of 
the  board.     The  length  of  the  short  arm  subtracted  from 


Physical  Apparatus. 


31 


g 

§             § 

in                o 

1 

LoiIg*iSrm  33.00 

h 

^.ShorbArrriv_    2.55 

O 

§1  : 

pifffeEeApe^—,.  30.45 

3. 

§  « 

r  >"e^5Hape5JReport  30.42 

-i 

> 

Stete.Ql  Weathec—  Clear 

" 

Long^rm^^,,—.--—  33.02 

t| 

/ 

Shqr^A-^n-^,  2.95 

o 

ii    - 

/ 

.  plff  erejfce  30.07 

IS 

*& 

7 

'Newspaper  "R  eport  30.08 

Hi 

i;^: 

State  of  Weather—  Cloudy 

^s 

.Long.Arm  32.70 

r  k<          _^ 

Short  Arm...     -    3.65 

o 

g|     xx 

IMfference  211.115 

S1*    V 

N'ewspaper  Report.--.29.00 

Co 

s 

State  of  Weather—  Rainy" 

's 

Long,4:rm..^  ..as.OO      i 

*s  ; 

Short^rm           .3.00 

o 

[i 

•s 
S, 

Difference  30.00 

5. 

*  8. 

1 

Newspaper  Report'..—  30.03 

•fc 

\ 

State  of  Weather—  Cloudy 

1 

Long  Arm  .33.09 

4^ 

Short  Arm  2.85 

0 

II 

Difference  30.24 

ii 

Is  :::: 

-^Newspaper  Report  30.30 

en 

_j 

State  of  Weather—  Clear 

bi 

/ 

Loug  Arm.  .32.98 

to8 

^7 

Short  Arm  .    2.99 

o 

£  1 

f 

Difference.  -  .  ,  ,  29.99 

r- 

•  s 

Newspaper  Report.  ...29.94 

00 

A 

State  of  Weather—  Clear 

Long  Arm  32.92 

*£ 

Short  Arm  .  3.00 

o 

8  S 
<S  £ 

Difference—   .     29.92 

fi 

•i  : 

Newspaper  Report—  29.86 

<B 

State  of  Weather—  Cloudy 

Long  Arm  ^—  --—  .32.86 

hr 

Short  Arm      .        3.06 

o 

0  8 

Difference  29.80 

R- 

Us- 

_j 

Newspaper  Report  29.77 

o 

State  of  Weather—  Clear 

h 

Long  Arm.     ..     —    -.33.89 

|| 

Short  Arm  ..3.05 

o 

•e  Sf 

Difference  29.84 

r* 

e  5" 

Newspaper  Report  29.84 

^ 

| 

State  of  Weather—  Clear 

32  Home-made  Apparatus. 

the  length  of  the  long  arm  gives  the  height  of  the  mer- 
cury column,  which  is  balanced  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

Cost. — Glass  tubing 7  cents 

Mercury 25  cents 


32  cents 

The  records  given  herewith,  on  page  31,  are  samples  of 
such  as  were  kept  upon  this  barometer  by  a  primary  class 
of  the  third  grade  (third  year  in  school).  The  teacher 
instructed  one  pupil  how  to  take  the  observations  and 
record  them,  and  the  next  day  this  pupil,  at  the  appointed 
time  (close  of  the  session),  instructed  a  second  pupil  to 
do  the  same,  who,  in  turn,  upon  the  following  day,  in- 
structed a  third  pupil,  and  so  on.  The  teacher  obtained 
from  the  evening  paper  a  report  for  the  same  hour,  and 
recorded  it  the  next  morning. 

No.  31.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Liquid  Pressure 
Increases  with  the  Depth. — Three  holes  are  bored  in 
the  side  of  a  32-ounce  wide-mouthed  bottle.  Short  tubes 
nearly  closed  at  their  ends  are  fitted  into  these  holes,  and 
caps  are  provided  for  these  tubes  according  to  the 
method  described  on  p.  n.  To  keep  the  water  in  this 
bottle  at  a  constant  level  during  the  experiment,  a  16- 
ounce  narrow-mouthed  bottle,  whose  neck  has  been  cut 
off  (p.  9),  is  filled  with  water  and  inverted  over  it. 

Cost. — 32-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle 17  cents 

i6-oz.  narrow-mouthed  bottle 5  cents 

Tubing 3  cents 


25  cents 

No.  32.  Apparatus   to   Show  that   the   Increase  of 
Liquid   Pressure   is   Proportional   to   the   Depth — A 


Physical  Apparatus. 


33 


FIG.  42. 

glass  tube  about  twenty-two  inches  long  is  bent  so  that 
the  long  arm  is  about  sixteen  and  the 
short  arm  about  four  inches  long.  Both 
ends  are  left  open.  The  tube  is  fastened 
to  a  board-back,  and  a  scale  for  measure- 
ment is  placed  alongside  of  each  arm. 
The  whole  is  attached  to  a  board  base 
sufficiently  broad  to  make  it  stand  firmly. 
The  base  has  an  elevated  margin,  so  as  to 
form  a  tray  to  catch  the  mercury  which  c 
may  be  spilled  by  accident.  FlG  43- 


34  Home-made  Apparatus. 

A  little  mercury  is  put  in  the  tube  first  and  afterwards 
water,  alcohol,  ether,  or  other  liquid  is  added  to  the  long 
arm.  The  liquid  presses  down  the  mercury  in  the  long 
arm  and  forces  it  up  in  the  short  arm.  Three  readings 
are  taken  each  time  a  charge  of  the  liquid  is  added  ;  one 
giving  the  height  above  the  base  of  the  mercury  in  the 
short  arm;  one  giving  the  height  above  the  base  of  the 
mercury  column  in  the  long  arm,  and  one  giving  the 
height  above  the  base  of  the  liquid  column  in  the  long 
arm.  The  second  reading  subtracted  from  the  third  gives 
the  length  of  the  column  of  water,  or  other  liquid  used, 
and  the  second  reading  subtracted  from  the  first  gives 
the  length  of  the  mercury  column  required  to  balance  it. 
A  column  of  mercury  one  inch  high  represents  a  pressure 
of  about  half  a  pound  per  square  inch.  It  requires  a 
column  of  water  about  13.7  inches  high,  and  a  column  of 
alcohol  about  17  inches  high  to  give  the  same  pressure. 
From  such  measurements  the  specific  gravity  of  mercury 
and  alcohol  or  other  liquids  is  obtained. 

The  water-column  is  extended  and  enlarged  by  putting 
a  rubber  stopper  into  the  small  end  of  a  common  lamp- 
chimney  and  thrusting  the  end  of  the  long  arm  of  the 
glass  tube  through  the  hole  in  the  stopper.  Water  is 
then  poured  into  the  chimney.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  volume  of  water  is  so  greatly  increased,  the  pressure, 
measured  as  before,  is  found  to  be  proportional  to  the 
depth  alone. 

By  means  of  rubber  tubing  this  pressure  gauge  may 
be  connected  with  the  spout  of  the  bottle  described  on 
p.  ii.  After  all  the  air  is  dislodged  from  the  tubes,  the 
bottle  may  be  raised  and  lowered  to  various  positions, 


Physical  Apparatus. 


35 


and  measurements  taken  to  show  that  the  pressure  of  a 
liquid  is  proportional  to  the  depth  measured  vertically, 
no  matter  what  is  the  size  or  shape  of  the  vessel  contain- 
ing the  liquid. 

By  means  of  rubber  tubing  this  pressure  gauge  is  con- 
nected with  gas-pipe,  steam-pipe,  water-pipe,  or  the  lungs, 
and  the  pressure  in  terms  of  pounds  per  square  inch  de- 
termined. 

By  means  of  rubber  tubing  a  glass  tube  is  connected 
with  this  pressure  gauge,  and  the  glass  tube  is  dipped  to 
various  depths  in  various  liquids  to  determine  the  buoy- 
ant force  or  upward  pressure  in  liquids.  By  the  same  ex- 
periments we  calculate  the  specific  gravity  also  of 
various  liquids. 

Cost. — Glass,  wood,  and  mercury 10  cents. 

No.  33.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  at  Any  Given 
Depth  in  a  Liquid,  the  Pressure  is  the  Same  in  All 
Directions — Rubber  cloth  is  tied  water- 
tight over  the  bottom  of  a  lamp  chimney. 
Three  glass  tubes  pass  through  the  rubber 
stopper,  each  open  at  both  ends.  The  lower 
ends  of  all  are  on  the  same  level ;  one  points 
downward,  another  sidewise,  and  the  third 
upward.  When  a  finger  presses  upon  the 
rubber  cloth  the  water  rises  to  the  same 
height  in  all  the  tubes.  The  tubes  act  as 
pressure  gauges,  and  the  height  of  the  water-  FIG.  44. 
column  may  be  translated  readily  into  pounds  pressure 
per  square  inch. 


36  Home-made  Apparatus. 

Cost. — Glass  tubing 4  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  7,  with  three  holes.. . .   20  cents 

Rubber  cloth , : . . .     5  cents 

Lamp  chimney  from  Apparatus  No.  12. 


29  cents 

No.  34.  Apparatus  for  Illustrating  Buoyancy  and 
the  Transmission  of  Pressure  Through  Liquids.— A 
small  pill  bottle  about  half  full  of  water  and  half  full  of 
air  is  inverted  in  water  in  a  lamp  chimney. 
There  is  no  cork  in  the  vial.  The  propor- 
tion of  air  to  water  in  the  vial  is  so  carefully 
adjusted  that  the  slightest  change  of  pressure 
or  temperature  will  cause  it  to  sink  or  float. 
When  a  little  pressure  is  exerted  upon  the 
rubber  cloth  or  the  rubber  stopper  of  the 
chimney,  the  pressure  is  transmitted  through 
the  liquid  to  the  air  in  the  small  vial,  caus- 
ing it  to  contract,  as  is  seen  by  the  rising  of 
the  water  in  the  small  bottle.  The  air,  now 
displacing  less  water,  no  longer  buoys  up  the  small 
bottle  and  it  sinks.  When  the  pressure  is  removed  the 
air  recovers  again  its  original  volume,  demonstrating  its 
elasticity.  The  weight  of  the  water  now  displaced  by 
the  air  and  the  glass  of  the  small  bottle  being  equal  to 
or  greater  than  the  weight  of  the  small  bottle,,  it  is 
again  buoyed  up.  If  the  small  bottle  sinks  at  night 
when  the  room  is  cold  it  will  rise  during  the  day  when 
the  room  is  warm. 

Lamp  chimney  and  rubber  stopper  from  apparatus  No.  12. 

No.  35.   Apparatus  to  Show  the  Transmission  of 
Water  Pressure  by  an  Air  Column — The  lower  bottle 


Physical  Apparatus. 


37 


may  be  placed  upon  the  table  or  floor  and  the 
bottles  held,  one  in  each  hand. 
If  the  bottle  A,  from  which 
the  fountain  flows,  is  raised  or 
lowered  there  is  no  change  in 
the  force  of  the  fountain,  be- 
cause no  change  in  the  water 
pressure  which  produces  it,  but 
if  the  bottle  B  which  is  held 
in  the  other  hand  is  raised  or 
lowered  it  changes  the  height 
of  the  fountain.  This  piece 
of  apparatus  is  calculated  to 
dispel  some  of  the  fallacious 
notions  to  which  the  mystical 
apparatus  called  "  Hero's  Foun- 
tain "  has  given  rise. 

Cost. 

i6-oz.  narrow-mouthed  bot- 
tle from  apparatus  No.  29. 

2  - 16  •  oz.  narrow-mouthed 

bottles 10  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  I  with 
two  holes 4  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  i  from 
apparatus  No.  20. 

Glass  tubing  2  feet 4  cents 

Rubber-tubing  from  appa- 
ratus No.  95. 


other 


1 8  cents. 


FIG.  46. 


No.  37a.  Apparatus  to  Il- 
lustrate the  Total  Fluid  Pressure  in  a  Closed  Vessel. 
— A  tin  lard  pail  cover  whose  sides  are  straight  has  a 
rubber  cloth  tied  over  it  so  as  to  make  an  air-tight  space 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


inside.  A  short  piece  of  glass  tubing  is  fitted  into  its  side 
by  the  method  described  on  page  1 1,  and  a  piece  of  rubber 
tubing  about  four  feet  long  is  attached  to  this.  A  book 

is  laid  across  over  the 
rubber  cloth  and  weights 
laid  upon  it.  The  mouth 
may  be  used  upon  the 
end  of  the  rubber  tube 
47-  and  a  weight  of  many 

pounds  lifted  by  the  force  of  the  breath.  The  rubber 
tube  may  be  connected  with  the  bottle  of  water  de- 
scribed on  page  u,  and  a  weight  of  many  pounds  upon 
the  book  be  lifted  by  the  pressure  of  the  column  of  water. 

Cost. — Rubber  cloth 10  cents 

Rubber  tubing  from  apparatus  No.  95. 

No.  38.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Reaction  ol  a 
Jet     of    Water — Four     holes    are  | 

bored  in  a  i6-ounce  narrow-mouthed 
bottle  (figure  48)  by  the  method  de- 
scribed on  page  10,  and  short  bent 
tubes  whose  outer  ends  are  nearly 
closed  (p.  7)  are  fitted  into  these 
holes  water-tight  by  the  method 
described  on  page  n.  The  bottle 
is  filled  with  water  and  suspended 
by  a  string.  The  four  jets  of 
water  cause  the  bottle  to  revolve. 

Cost. — i6-oz.  narrow-mouthed 

bottle Scents. 

Tubing 2  cents. 


7  cents. 


FIG.  48. 


Physical  Apparatus. 


39 


No.  39-  Student's  Lamp.— In  figure  42,  page  33,  the 
inverted  bottle  of  water  used  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  liquid  at  a  constant  level  suggests  a  piece  of  apparatus 
for  explaining  the  student's  lamp.  The  bottom  is  cut  from 
a  i6-ounce  narrow-mouthed  bottle  (p.  9),  and  a  bent  glass 
tube  is  put  through  the  hole  of  the  rubber 
stopper  (figure  49).  An  8-ounce  bottle 
of  water  is  inverted  in  this  bottle.  Its 
mouth  has  no  stopper.  The  water  stands 
in  the  bent  tube  on  a  level  with  the 
mouth  of  the  smaller  bottle.  Take  water 
from  the  outer  end  of  the  bent  tube  with 
a  dropper  tube  and  bubbles  of  air  will  be  FlGt  49- 
seen  to  rise  into  the  smaller  bottle  and  just  enough  water 
will  pass  out  to  restore  the  level. 

Cost. — Glass  tubing i  cent 

16-02.  narrow-mouthed  bottle 5  cents 

8-oz.  narrow-mouthed  bottle  from  apparatus  No.  19. 
No.  i  rubber  stopper  from  apparatus  No.  7. 


6  cents 

No.  40.  Fountain  Sponge  Cup — Two  cups  are  made 
by  cutting  the  bottom  portion  from  two  8-oz.  wide- 
mouthed  bottles.  Holes  are  bored  in 
these,  and  they  are  connected  by  a 
short  piece  of  glass  tubing  (p.  n). 
In  one  of  these  cups  an  8-oz.  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  ot  water  is  inverted. 
The  water  flows  through  the  short 
tube  into  the  other  cup,  in  which  a 
sponge  is  kept.  A  constant  level  of 
the  liquid  is  thus  maintained,  and  the 


FIG.  50. 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


sponge  is  kept  moist.     Ink-wells  are  constructed  upon 
the  same  principle. 


Cost. — 2  8-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottles, 
i  ditto  from  apparatus  No.  7. 


12  cents 


No.  41.  Lifting  Pump.— A  No.  9  rubber  stopper  fits 
into  the  bottom  of  a  small-sized  Argand  lamp-chimney, 
figure  51.  One  hole  is  plugged,  and  into  the 
other  is  thrust  a  short  piece  of  glass  tubing, 
with  a  piece  of  rubber-tubing  to  lead  down 
into  the  cistern.  About  one  inch  and  a  half  is 
cut  from  the  top  of  the  chimney  (p.  9).  Below 
that  the  chimney  is  found  to  be  of  nearly 
uniform  diameter.  A  No.  5  rubber  stopper 
is  used  for  the  piston  and  is  wound  with 
soft  cotton  cord  to  make  it  fit  nicely.  Small 
pieces  of  rubber  cloth  are  used  as  valves.  A 
glass  rod  is  used  to  move  the  piston.  Knobs 
are  made  upon  the  ends  of  it  by  softening 
them  in  a  flame  and  pressing  them  while  they 
FIG.  51.  are  soft  against  a  hard  surface.  Waxed  thread 
is  wound  tightly  around  the  rod,  just  above  the  piston, 
to  prevent  its  slipping  downward.  A  No.  6  rubber  stop- 
per is  put  in  the  top  of  the  chimney,  and  a  bent  glass 
tube  passing  through  one  of  its  holes  serves  as  a  spout. 

Cost. — Argand  lamp  chimney 10  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  9  with  two  holes. ...  31  cents 

"             "                5     "        "",...  10  cents 

"             "               6     "        ""....  14  cents 

Sundry  items 3  cents 

68  cents 


Physical  Apparatus 


No.  42.  Force-Pump. — To  make  a  force-pump  the 
plug  is  removed  from  the  lower 
stopper  of  apparatus  No.  41  and 
thrust  into  the  hole  of  the  piston 
under  the  valve.  An  air-chamber 
is  made  from  a  i-oz.  wide-mouthed 
bottle,  figure  52.  Through  one  hole 
of  its  stopper  a  bent  glass  tube 
passes,  having  the  outer  end  nearly 
closed,  for  throwing  jets  of  water. 

A  valve  like  that  used  in  apparatus  No.  41  covers  the 
other  hole  of  the  stopper  upon  the  inside  of  the  bottle, 
and  from  this  hole  a  bent  glass  tube  passes  and  connects 
this  air-chamber  with  the  lamp-chimney  pump. 

Cost. — i-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle  from  apparatus  No.  9. 
Rubber  stopper  No.  3  from  apparatus  No.  n. 
Glass  tubing i  cent 

No.  43.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Moment  of  a 
Force. — A  strip  of  wood  thirteen  inches  long,  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide,  is  piv- 
oted in  the  middle  upon 
&  &  6  £  §  6  a  common  pin,  figure  53. 
g  Hooks  made  of  pins  are 

inserted  along  the  lower 
edge,  at  distances  one 
inch  apart.  Coarse  cop- 

per  wire,   No.    12,  is  cut 

~ into  lengths  exactly  three 
inches   long.     These    are 

bent  in  the  form  of  the  letter  S.  Two  of  these  weights 
hung  upon  the  first  pin  at  the  left  balance  one  weight 


42  Home-made  Apparatus. 

hung  upon  the  second  pin  at  the  right.  Three  weights 
upon  the  first  pin  at  the  left  balance  one  weight  upon 
the  third  pin  at  the  right.  Four  weights  upon  the  first 
pin  at  the  left  balance  one  weight  upon  the  fourth  pin  at 
the  right.  Five  weights  upon  the  first  pin  at  the  left 
balance  one  weight  upon  the  fifth  pin  at  the  right.  Six 
weights  upon  the  first  pin  at  the  left  balance  one  weight 
upon  the  sixth  pin  at  the  right.  Two  weights  upon  the 
third  pin  at  the  left  balance  three  weights  upon  the 
second  pin  at  the  right,  etc. 

No.  44.  Apparatus  Illustrating  the  Second  Law  of 
Motion. — To  a  thin  strip  of  wood  eight  inches  long,  one 
inch  wide,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  figure  54, 
is  fastened  a  small  block  two  and  a  half  inches  long  and 
one  inch  square  at  the  end,  with  a  quarter-inch  hole 


FIG.  54. 

made  through  it  lengthwise.  Through  this  a  quarter- 
inch  dowel-rod  eight  inches  long  passes..  There  are  two 
blocks  of  wood,  each  a  cubic  inch  in  size,  through  one  of 
which  a  quarter-inch  hole  is  bored,  so  that  it  may  be  sus- 
pended upon  the  dowel-rod.  By  means  of  rubber  bands 
the  dowel-rod  is  made  to  act  as  a  spring-gun.  It  sets 


Physical  Apparatus. 


43 


both  blocks  free  to  fall  at  exactly  the  same  instant,  but 
at  the  same  time  projects  one  of  them  horizontally.  Both 
blocks,  however,  reach  the  floor  at  exactly  the  same 
instant. 

No.  45.  Centre-of -Gravity  Disk.— In  a  flat  cork  saw 
on  one  side  a  gash  and 
fill   it  with  a  piece  of 
sheet-lead,  figure  55. 

No.  46.  Apparatus 
to  Show  the  Specific 
Gravity  of  Liquids 
when  Measured  by 
their  Buoyant  Force. 

A         o  -j  FlG-   55- 

—  An    8-ounce     wide- 
mouthed  bottle  contains  the  liquid  whose  specific  gravity 
is   to   be   found.     A  test-tube  containing 
shot,  to  make  it  keep  the  upright  position, 
floats  in  the  liquid.     With  it  very  accurate 
results  have  been  obtained  by  high-school 
pupils.     By  putting  more  or  less  shot  into 
the  test-tube  it  is  made  to  serve  for  liquids 
of  all  densities.     By  reason    of   the   fact 
that  the  glass  is  not  attacked  by  acids  and 
FIG.  56.          is  easily  kept  clean,  it  proves  to  be  a  very 
convenient  form  of  apparatus. 

No.  47.  Apparatus  to  Show  the  Specific  Gravity  of 
Liquids  when  Balanced  Agaiast  Atmospheric  Press- 
ure-— A  glass  T-tube  is  bent  as  shown  in  figure  57,  and 
by  means  of  rubber  tubes  it  is  connected  with  two  glass 
tubes,  each  about  one  foot  long.  These  dip  down  into 
two  test-tubes.  The  glass  T-tube  is  wired  securely  to  a 


44 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


board  back  supported  upon  a  board  base.  A  scale  is 
fastened  to  the  back  between  the  glass 
tubes.  The  rubber-tube  connections 
permit  the  lower  end  of  the  glass  tubes 
to  be  swung  outward,  so  that  the  test- 
tubes  may  be  changed  at  pleasure. 
These  contain  the  liquids  to  be  com- 
pared. A  short  glass  at  the  upper  end 
serves  as  mouth-piece  (each  pupil  has 
his  own  individual  mouth-piece)  and  a 
short  piece  of  rubber  tubing  connects 
this  with  the  T-tube.  The  air  is 
drawn  out  with  the  mouth,  and  this 
rubber  tube  is  pinched  with  thumb 
and  finger  while  the  height  of  the 
liquid  columns  is  measured. 

Cost. — T-tube 15  cents 

Glass  tubing 4  cents 

Rubber  tubing 5  cents 


Test-tubes ;     6  cents 


FIG.  57. 

No.  49.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  Os- 
mose.— A  gold-beater's-skin  bag  is  tied 
over  the  end  of  a  glass  tube,  figure  58,  and 
this  by  means  of  a  short  piece  of  rubber 
tubing  is  connected  with  a  bent  glass  tube 
which  passes  through  a  stopper  in  an  8- 
ounce  wide-mouthed  bottle.  The  other 
hole  of  the  stopper  is  left  open.  By 
means  of  a  dropper-tube,  the  end  of  which 
is  drawn  out  into  a  long,  slender  tube,  a 
thick  sugar  syrup  is  introduced  into  the 


30  cents 


FIG.  58. 


Physical  Apparatus.  45 

bag  through  the  short  glass  tube.  The  connection  with 
the  larger  tube  is  then  made  again,  and  it  is  allowed  to 
hang  in  the  bottle  for  a  time  to  insure  that  there  is  no 
leaking  through  the  bag.  Then  water  is  poured  into  the 
bottle  to  cover  the  bag.  Immediately  the  liquid  begins 
to  rise  in  the  glass  tube  and  after  a  time  flows  over  the 
top,  although  the  tube  may  be  very  long  and  very  large. 
An  argand-lamp  chimney  is  frequently  used  for  the  tube 
with  the  same  result.  If  the  end  of  the  glass  tube  is 
sealed  up,  the  bag  will  swell  and  burst.  If  the  sugar 
syrup  is  put  into  the  bottle  outside  of  the  bag  and  water 
is  put  inside  the  bag,  it  will  shrink  and  become  very 
small.  The  same  phenomenon  is.  to  be  noticed  when 
prunes  or  berries  are  put  into  water  or  sugar  syrup. 

Cost. — Gold-beater's  skin  bag 15  cents 

Tubing Scents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  7  with  two  holes 20  cents 

8-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle  from  apparatus  No.  7. 
Small  tumbler  from  apparatus  No.  13. 

40  cents 

No.  51.  Apparatus  for  Illustrating  the  Formation 
of  Ice  Crystal  in  a  Snowstorm. — An  8-ounce  flask 
is  filled  to  the  neck  with  a  concentrated 
hot  solution  of  ammonium  chloride  in  water. 
Upon  cooling,  crystals  rapidly  form  and  fall 
through  the  solution  like  snowflakes.  They 
grow  larger  as  they  fall.  The  round  flask 
magnifies  them,  so  that  they  may  be  seen  when 
very  minute.  The  flask  is  closed  with  a  rubber 
stopper  to  prevent  evaporation,  and  the  solu- 
tion may  be  kept  any  length  of  time.  Whenever  it  is 
desired  to  repeat  the  experiment  the  crystals  are  readily 


46  Home-made  Apparatus. 

dissolved  again   by  passing  the   flask   back   and   forth 
through  the  flame  of  an  alcohol-lamp  or  Bunsen-burner. 

Cost. — 8-oz.  flask 15  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  5  without  holes 10  cents 

25  cents 

No.  53.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Unequal  Expan- 
sion of  Different  Metals  when 
Heated. — A  piece  of  wood  is 
cut  as  represented  in  figure  60, 
and  strips  of  tin  (sheet  iron) 
and  brass  are  screwed  fast  to 
it.  When  it  is  held  so  that  the 
flame  plays  upon  these  strips 
of  metal  they  curve,  indicating 
FIG.  60.  tjiat  tney  grow  ionger  when 

heated,  but  the  strip  of  brass  always  curves  more  than 
the  other. 

No.  54.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Expansion  of  Li- 
quids by  Heat — Thermometer. — The  glass  tube, 
figure  61,  has  an  inside  diameter  of  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  Its  length  is  not  less  than  a  foot. 
The  flask  has  a  capacity  of  two  ounces  and  is 
filled  with  water.  When  the  rubber  stopper  carry- 
ing the  tube  is  inserted  and  pushed  firmly  into  the 
neck  all  the  air  is  driven  out  and  the  water  is 
driven  a  little  way  up  the  tube.     If  the  flask  is 
now  held  in  a  flame  the  water  rises  slowly  up  the      JL 
tube,  showing  expansion  in  its  volume.    By  using     ^H? 
a  tube  of  smaller  diameter  and  a  flask  of  larger  FlG-  6l« 
size,  the  thermometer  becomes  more  sensitive,  i.e.,  its 


Physical  Apparatus.  47 

rise  and  fall  can  be  noted  for  smaller  changes  of  tem- 
perature. 

Cost.  —  Glass  tube  ..................................  2  cents 

Rubber  stopper  No.  i  from  apparatus  No.  7. 
Glass  flask,  2-ounce,  from  apparatus  No.  18. 


Nos.  55  and  ssa.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Ex- 
pansion of  Air  by  Heat  —  Air  Thermometer.  —  Appara- 
tus No.  55  is  an  8-oz  glass  flask,  with  rubber  cloth  tied 
air-tight  over  its  mouth.  When  the  air  is  heated  the 
rubber  cloth  swells  upward,  indicating  the  ex-  ^^ 
pansion  of  the  air.  When  the  flask  is  plunged 
into  cold  water  the  rubber  cloth  sags  inward, 
indicating  the  contraction  of  the  air. 

Apparatus  No.  550  is  the  same  flask  and  tube 
as  that  described  under  No.  54.  It  is  inverted, 
and  the  glass  tube  passes  through  an  ordinary 
cork  and  dips  into  water  in  an  ink-bottle,  figure 
62.  A  flame  brought  near  the  flask  causes  the 
air  in  it  to  expand,  and  bubbles  pass  out  through 
the  water.  When  the  air  cools  water  rises  in 
the  tube.  A  strip  of  paper  is  attached  to  the  FIG¥  62- 
tube  by  mucilage,  and  on  it  is  marked  the  height  to 
which  the  water  rises  when  the  temperature,  as  indicated 
by  an  ordinary  thermometer,  corresponds  to  fifty,  sixty, 
seventy,  eighty,  and  ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Nos.  56  and  57.  Apparatus  to  Show  How  Air  Cur- 
rents Are  Produced  by  Heat.*  —  Apparatus  No.  56  con- 
sists of  a  pasteboard  box-cover  in  which  two  holes  are 
cut,  and  over  each  of  these  a  lamp-chimney  stands,  figure 

*  Borrowed  from  the  author's  "Simple  Experiments." 


48 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


63.  A  lighted  candle  is  under  chimney  a.  When  smoke 
from  burning  paper  is  brought  to  the  top  of  chimney  b 
there  is  found  to  be  a  strong  downward  current  in  it. 
The  smoke  is  carried  along  under  the  box-cover  and  up 
chimney  a. 

Cost. — 2  Argand  lamp-chimneys 20  cents. 

Apparatus  No.  57  consists  of  a  common  lamp-chimney 
placed  over  a  lighted  candle,  figure  64.     A  strip  of  tin  or 


FIG.  63. 


FIG.  64. 


cardboard  divides  the  chimney  into  two  compartments. 
When  the  candle  is  arranged  as  represented  in  the  figure, 
a  current  of  air,  as  indicated  by  paper-smoke,  passes  down 
one  side  of  the  partition  and  up  the  other.  The  tin  par- 
tition is  sometimes  suspended  from  a  wire  which  extends 
across  the  top  of  the  chimney. 


Physical  Apparatus.  49 

No.  58.  Apparatus  to  Show  that  Water  and  Air  Are 
Poor  Conductors  of  Heat. — This  consists  of  a 
test-tube  with  a  small  thermometer  in  it.  A 
thimbleful  of  ether  may  be  poured  upon  the  top 
of  the  water  and  set  on  fire  ;  or,  by  holding  the 
upper  end  of  the  tube  against  a  flame,  the  water 
in  the  upper  end  may  be  boiled.  In  either  case 
the  thermometer  indicates  that  the  water  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  tube  has  not  been  heated  so 
much  as  a  single  degree. 

With  air  in  the  tube  the  upper  end  may  be 
melted  in  the  flame  without  affecting  the  ther- 
mometer in  the  lower  part. 

It  is  well  to  hold  a  piece  of  cardboard  so  as  ^IG-  65- 
to  shut  off  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  flame  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  tube. 

Cost  of  thermometer 10  cents. 

No.  59.  Funnel  for  Hot  Filtration — The  stem  of  a 
small  glass  funnel,  by  means  of  a  short 
piece  of  rubber  tubing,  is  made  to  fit  water- 
tight inside  of  a  "  marbleized  "  iron  funnel, 
figure  66. 

Hot  water  is  put  in  the  space  between 
the  two  funnels,  and  a  small  flame  is  di- 
rected against  the  side  of  the  outer  funnel 

FIG.  66.         to  keep  the  water  hot. 

Cost.  —  Glass  funnel,  2^  inches  in  diameter. ...   12  cents 
Iron  funnel 25  cents 

37  cents 


50  Home-made  Apparatus. 

No.  60.  Illustration  of  Bunsen-Burner. — A  short  piece 
of  small  glass  tubing  is  thrust  into  the  end  of 
the  rubber  gas-tubing  of  the  laboratory,  figure 
67.  Over  the  upper  end  of  this  glass  tube  a 
piece  of  paper  is  pasted,  through  which  a 
number  of  pin-pricks  are  made  to  permit  the 
gas  to  flow  in  several  minute  streams,  the 
number  of  which  depends  upon  several  con- 
ditions, and  must  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment. Over  the  upper  end  of  this  small  glass 
tube  a  large  glass  tube,  about  four  or  five 
inches  long  and  half  an  inch  inside  diameter, 
is  held.  Both  of  its  ends  are  open  normally, 
but  the  lower  end  may  be  closed  by  bringing 
it  down  upon  a  piece  of  cardboard,  which  fits 
upon  the  small  glass  tube. 

The  adjustment  may  be  made  so  that  an  Argand  lamp- 
chimney  may  be  used  for  the  outer  tube. 

Cost  of  glass  tubing 5  cents. 

No.  61.  Illustration  of  Blastlamp,  Blowpipe,    etc. 

— Two  small  glass  tubes  are  bent  at 
right  angles  and  bound  together  by  a 
short  piece  of  rubber  tubing,  figure  68. 
Over  the  upper  end  of  these  a  piece  of 
glass  tubing,  four  or  five  inches  long  and 
half  an  inch  inside  diameter,  is  held. 
The  upper  end  is  open,  but  the  lower 
one  is  closed  by  bringing  it  down  upon 
a  piece  of  cardboard,  which  fits  over  the 
ends  of  the  two  small  tubes.  One  of  the  small  tubes 


Physical  Apparatus. 


may  be  connected  with   one  of  the  rubber  gas-tubes  in 
the  laboratory,  the  other  with  the  air-bellows. 

Cost 8  cents. 

No.  62.  "Fish-tail"  Burner. — A  glass  tube  is  bent 
at  right  angles  in  two  places  so  as  to  lie  in  two  planes  at 
right  angles  to  one  another.  One  end 
is  connected  with  the  rubber  gas-pipe, 
and  the  other  end  has  an  ordinary 
gas-tip  attached  to  it  by  means  of  a 
short  piece  of  rubber  tubing,  which  is 
drawn-over  the  end  of  the  glass  tube, 
and  then  the  glass  tube  is  thrust  inside  of  the  brass 
pillar. 

It  is  very  convenient  for  bending  glass  tubing. 

Cost. — Brass  pillar 2  cents 

Lava  tip 2  cents 

Tubing 3  cents 


FIG.  69. 


7  cents 

No.  63.  Tumbler  Battery. — A  large-sized  electric- 
light  carbon,  half  an  inch  in  diameter  by  twelve  inches 
long,  is  broken  in  two.  One  of  these  pieces  is  laid  aside 
for  another  battery.  A  hole 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep 
is  bored  in  the  end  of  the  other 
piece  and  the  clean  end  of  a 
copper  wire  is  fastened  in  this 
hole  by  pouring  around  it 
melted  lead  or  solder, 
rod,  such  as  is  used 


FIG.  70. 


A  zinc 
in   the 


ordinary  Leclanche  cell,  is  bound  to  the  carbon  rod  by 


52  Home-made  Apparatus. 

two  rubber  bands,  and  at  the  same  time  prevented  from 
coming  in  contact  with  it  by  two  rubber  bands.  These 
bands  are  cut  from  the  end  of  a  stout  rubber  hose. 

Any  one  of  the  ordinary  battery  solutions  is  used 
(preferably  one  ounce  of  sodium  bichromate,  two  ounces 
by  volume  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  seven  ounces  of  water), 
and  this  is  held  in  a  tumbler  which  sets  upon  an  ordinary 
porcelain  plate.  When  the  cell  is  not  in  use  the  zinc 
and  carbon  are  lifted  out  of  the  solution,  rinsed  off,  and 
laid  upon  the  plate. 

This  single  cell  will  furnish  sufficient  electricity  to 
perform  very  many  experiments. 

Cost. — Zinc 8  cents 

Carbon 4  cents 

Tumbler  from  apparatus  No.  12. 

Annunciator-wire,  3  ft 3  cents 

15  cents 
No.    65.    Plunge-Battery,  —  The    plunge-battery    is 


^§gsssj§ss$^s$ss$sss^gs^$$s;i§;s&^ 
FIG.  71. 

made  by  uniting  from  three  to  six  of  these  cells  and 
attaching  the  zincs  and  carbons  to  a  strip  of  wood,  so  that 


Physical  Apparatus.  53 

all  can  be  raised  and  lowered   together  conveniently, 
figure  71. 

Three  cells  will  decompose  water  rapidly,  and  will 
do  all  the  work  of  such  batteries  as  cost  in  the  market 
$25.00. 

Cost  (about) 75  cents 

No.  66.  Telegraph  Sounder. --Small  iron  wire  is 
clipped  into  lengths  of  about  three  inches  and  tied  with 
fine  thread  into  a  small  bundle  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  Single-cotton-covered  copper  wire,  No.  24, 
is  carefully  wound  around  this  bundle  in  five  layers. 
Liquid  glue  is  used  to  prevent  the  wire 
from  slipping  off  the  ends  of  the  bundle. 
The  ends  of  the  copper  wire  are  attached 
to  screws.  One  of  these  screws  is  in  con- 
tact with  a  strip  of  ordinary  tin  (sheet  iron 
coated  with  tin),  which  acts  as  armature  and  is  its  own 
spring.  The  strip  of  tin  is  three  and  one-half  inches 
long  and  one  inch  wide.  A  cut  about  two-thirds  the 
way  across  the  strip  is  made  at  a,  figure  73.  The  lower 
edge  of  the  strip  is  folded  upward  along  the  first  and 
second  dotted  line  and  flattened  out  with 
the  hammer.  The  upper  portion  of  the 
strip,  now  three  times  its  original  thickness, 
FIG.  73.  js  bent  outwarci  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  the  paper,  so  that  only  the  edge  of  it  is  seen  in 
figure  72,  while  the  small  square  of  tin  in  the  corner  re- 
mains in  the  plane  of  the  paper  and  is  to  be  tacked  to 
the  board  back  of  the  apparatus.  The  electro-magnet 
is  fastened  to  the  board  with  glue  and  with  wire  loops. 
One  wire  from  the  battery  is  attached  to  one  of  the 


54 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


screws,  and  the  circuit  is  made  and  broken  by  repeatedly 
touching  the  other  battery-wire  to  the  other  screw.  When 
the  current  passes,  the  tin  is  drawn  against  the  end  of  the 
bundle;  and  when  the  current  ceases  to  pass,  the  tin  flies 
back  against  a  nail  which  is  driven  into  the  back-board. 
Cost 10  cents 

No.  68.  Apparatus  for  Decomposing  Liquids  by  an 
Electric  Current — An  8-ounce  wide-mouthed  bottle  is 
cut  in  two  (page  9),  and  the  neck 
portion  is  fitted  into  a  block  of 
wood,  figure  74.  A  No.  7  rubber 
stopper  with  two  holes  fits  in 
the  neck.  Two  pieces  of  plat- 
inum  wire  (No.  24),  each  about 
*wo  mc^es  long,  and  connected  to 
the  ends  of  copper  wire  (No.  24), 
FIG.  74.  are  fuse(j  mto  tne  ends  of  two 

short  pieces  of  glass  tubing,  see  figure  75.  The  glass 
tubes  are  thrust  through  the  holes  in  the  rubber  stopper. 
Over  the  ends  of  the  platinum  wires  two  test-tubes 
are  inverted  and  are  held  in  place  by  wire 
clamps,  not  shown  in  the  figure.  The  copper 
wires  are  joined  to  binding-screws,  with  which  the 
battery-wires  are  connected  when  the  apparatus 
is  in  use.  The  bottle  is  so  firmly  fastened  in  the  FlG-  75- 
block  that  it  cannot  drop  out  and  break  the  connecting 
wires  when  the  apparatus  is  washed. 

Cost. — 8-oz.  wide-mouthed  bottle .' 6  cents 

4-in.  platinum  wire,  No.  24 40  cents 

2  wood  binding-screws 24  cents 

2  test-tubes  from  apparatus  No.  48. 

Rubber  stopper  No.  7  from  apparatus  No.  49.    70  cents 


Physical  Apparatus. 


55 


No.  69.  Electric  Motor.— This  consists  of  two  rings, 
one  larger  than  the  other,  figure  76,  made  of  a  number 
of  turns  of  small  iron  wire.  These  rings  are  wound  five 
layers  deep  with  No.  24  single-cotton-coated  copper  wire, 
so  that  they  may  be  magnetized  by  the  electric  current. 


FIG.  76. 

A  few  turns  only  of  the  copper  wire  are  shown  in  the 
figure,  in  order  that  it  may  be  possible  to  trace  the  path 
of  the  current.  The  outer  ring  is  fastened  to  a  board 
base  and  the  inner  one  is  fastened  to  a  thin  board  disk, 
on  the  face  of  which  are  tacked  triangular-shaped  pieces 


56  Home-made  Apparatus. 

of  thin  sheet-brass.  Two  strips  of  spring-brass  are 
fastened  to  the  binding-posts  A  and  B,  and  are  curved 
so  that  their  ends  only  rub  upon  the  triangular  pieces  of 
brass  as  the  inner  disk  revolves.  The  axis  of  the  revolv- 
ing disk  is  a  small  wire  nail,  the  lower  end  of  which 
runs  in  a  metallic  socket  in  the  base,  while  the  upper  end 
passes  through  a  strip  of  brass,  not  represented  in  the 
figure,  arched  over  the  rings  and  fastened  at  both  ends 
upon  the  board  base. 

Suppose  the  wire  which  is  joined  to  the  carbon  of  the 
battery  to  be  connected  with  binding-post  A  and  the 
other  battery-wire  to  be  connected  with  binding-post  B. 
At  A  the  current  divides  and  half  of  it  follows  the  copper 
wire  which  encircles  the  outer  ring  (from  C  to  D  the 
wire  passes  underneath  the  revolving  disk  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  board  base),  and  returns  to  the  battery  by 
way  of  binding-post  B.  The  other  half  of  the  current 
follows  the  brass  strip  from  binding-post  A  to  one  of  the 
triangular  pieces  of  brass.  Here  this  half  of  the  current 
divides  into  two  quarters,  One  quarter  passing  half-way 
around  the  inner  ring  to  the  left  and  the  other  quarter 
passing  half-way  around  the  inner  ring  to  the  right. 
These  two  portions  of  the  current  unite  in  the  triangular 
piece  of  brass  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  disk  from  where 
they  separated,  and  pass  along  the  second  strip  of  brass 
to  binding-post  B  and  thence  to  the  battery. 

Cost 30  cents. 

No.  70.  Annunciator  and  Electric  Bell. — Three  small 
electro-magnets,  C,  D,  and  £,  made  as  described  on  page 
53,  are  fastened  to  a  board,  figure  77.  Strips  of  tin,  bent  as 


Physical  Apparatus. 


57 


described  on  page  53,  are  pivoted  to  the  board,  one  near 
the  end  of  each  magnet.  The  free  end  of  each  of  these 
strips  of  tin  rests  upon  another  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  long, 
slim  triangle,  and  pivoted  near  its  base  to  the  board. 


FIG.  77. 

The  broad  end  of  each  of  these  triangular-shaped  pieces 
of  tin  is  bent  outward  at  right  angles  from  the  plane  of 
the  board.  It  is  on  this  projection  that  each  of  the  three 
strips  first  mentioned  rests.  The  arrangement  is  such 
that  when  one  of  the  triangular  strips  is  pointing  upward 
the  weight  of  the  other  strip  in  contact  with  it  will  hold 
it  in  that  position,  but  when  once  the  triangular  strip  has 
fallen  to  the  horizontal  position  the  weight  of  its  com- 
panion will  not  raise  it  again. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  by  referring  to  the  figure  and 
supposing  that  the  battery  wires  are  in  contact  with  the 
binding-screws  A  and  B,  that  if  we  make  connection 
between  the  two  screws  at  P  with  a  strip  of  metal  repre- 
senting a  push-button,  the  current  will  pass  around  the 
magnet  E  and  through  the  bell  F  and  the  lower  pointer 
will  fall  and  point  toward  No.  i,  as  represented  in  the 
figure  ;  or,  if  we  make  connection  at  /",  the  current 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


will  pass  around  the  magnet  D  and  through  the  bell  F, 
and  then  the  middle  pointer  will  fall  and  point  toward 
No.  2  ;  or,  if  we  make  connection  at  P",  the  current  will 
pass  around  the  magnet  C  and  through  the  bell  F,  and 
then  the  upper  pointer  will  fall  and  point  toward  No.  3. 
No.  71.  Burglar-Alarm — A  crayon-box  with  sliding 
cover  is  taken  to  represent  a  window. 
A  strip  of  metal,  a,  b,  figure  78,  is 
tacked  upon  the  cover.     The  ends  of 
two  copper  wires,  one  coming  directly 
from  the  battery  and  the  other  com- 
ing from  an  electric  bell,  which  is  in 
the  circuit,  are  attached  to  the  box, 
so  that  when  the  cover  is  raised  the 
FIG.  78.  metal  strip  completes  the  circuit. 

No.  72.  Primary  and  Secondary  Coils. — Small  iron 
wire  is  tied  into  a  bundle  four  and  one-half  inches  long 
and  half  an  inch  thick,  A,  figure  79.  A 
tube,  four  inches  long  and  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  inside  diameter,  is  made  of  several 
thicknesses  of  stout  paper.  Around  this  is 
wound  four  layers  of  annunciator  wire,  No. 
1 8.  The  two  ends  project  above,  and  are 
to  be  connected  with  the  wires  of  the  bat- 
tery. This  coil,  which  is  called  the  primary 
coil,  is  designated  by  B  in  figure  79.  An- 
other paper  tube,  large  enough  to  cover  the 
primary  coil,  is  made  of  stout  paper,  and 
around  this  is  wound  ten  layers  of  single- 
cotton-covered  copper  wire,  No.  30.  Paper 
is  wrapped  around  the  coil  between  each  layer.  This 


Physical  Apparatus. 


59 


coil,  which  is  called  the  secondary  coil,  is  designated  by 
the  letter  C  in  the  figure.  It  is  fastened  to  a  board  base, 
and  the  two  ends  of  the  small  copper  wire  are  fastened 
to  binding-posts  which  are  screwed  into  the  base. 

The  primary  current  from  the  single  tumbler-cell  (No. 
63)  induces  a  current  in  the  secondary  coil  of  sufficient 
intensity  to  give  vigorous  shocks. 

Cost. — Wire  40  cents. 

No.  73.  Telephone. — A  telephone-magnet  is  mounted 
as  shown  in  figure  80, 
upon  one  end  of 
which  are  fastened 
two  wooden  button 
moulds  about  half 
an  inch  apart,  and 
the  space  between 
them  is  wound  full  of 
single- cotton-covered  FIG.  80. 

copper  wire,  No.  36.  The  mouthpiece  is  made  from  wood 
three  inches  square,  and  a  tintype  two  and  a  half  inches 
square  slides  intoits  position  in  grooves. 

Cost 50  cents. 

No.  75.  Electroscope — An  8-ounce  glass  flask  with  a 
rubber  stopper,  through  which  passes  a  copper  wire  curved 
into  a  loop  at  the  upper  end  and  having  two  strips  of  tis- 
sue-paper at  the  lower  end,  serves  well  for  an  electroscope. 

No.  76.  Electrophorus — A  large-sized  jelly-cake  tin 
with  half  a  pound  of  sealing-wax  melted  in  it  so  as  to 
form  a  layer  of  uniform  thickness  is  the  electrophorus, 
and  a  smaller  sized  jelly-cake  tin  suspended  by  silk 


Li  , 

1 

.  mm 

•: 
1 

ffl_j"JL^-i           '    ...       -     ,",4 

T 

— 

j  ^\m 

"••  : 

*1 

jag! 
b  a 

\ 

: 

J 

I 

jf^r-^-^  —  •  —  ,*• 

31    *  '-^ 

OP  VIEW 

—  1 

SIDE  VIEW 

60  Home-made  Apparatus. 

threads  serves  to  convey  the  charge  from  it  to  the  Leyden 
Jar,  No.  77. 

Cost. — 2  jelly-cake  tins 6  cents 

^  Ib.  sealing-wax 10  cents 

16  cents 

No.  77.  Leyden  Jar.—  A  tall  beaker  is  coated  both 
inside  and  outside  with   tin-foil  stuck  on  by  mucilage. 
The  coats  cover  the  bottom  and  extend  no 
more  than  two  thirds  the  way  up  the  side.     A 
flat  cork  fills  the  mouth  of  the  beaker,  and  a 
wire,  running   through   the   cork,    terminates 
in   a   loop   above   and   a   small    brass   chain 
below,  which  insures  good  contact  with  the 
inner  coat.    This  jar  when  charged  with  about 
twenty   sparks    from    the  electrophorus    fur- 
nishes a  shock  which  may  be  felt  by  a  large 
class   joining   hands.     A   beaker   is   used   instead  of   a 
tumbler  because  its  glass  is  a  better  insulator. 

Cost, — Beaker  (lo-oz.) 22  cents 

No.  79.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  that  Air  or  Some 
Medium  is  Necessary  to  Transmit  Sound. — A  glass  rod 
is  passed  through  one  hole  of  the  stopper  of  the  receiver, 
apparatus  No.  14,  page  17.  A  small  bell  is  attached  to 
the  lower  end  of  this  rod.  The  air  is  exhausted  with  the 
Franklin  air-pump. 

The  bottle  is  sometimes  filled  with  illuminating  gas, 
hydrogen,  or  ether  vapor,  and  their  power  to  transmit 
sound  noted. 

Nos.  80  to  91.— Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Subject 
of  Light. — Described  fully  in  the  author's  "  First  Course 
in  Science." 

Cost  of  apparatus $r.5o. 


Physiological  Apparatus. 


61 


PART  IV.    PHYSIOLOGICAL  APPARATUS. 

No.  92.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Action  of 
Muscles. — Two  pieces  of  wood  about  half  an  inch  thick, 
one  inch  wide,  and  nine  and  four  inches  long,  respectively, 
are  pivoted  together  by  strips  of  tin  on  opposite  sides,  so 
as  to  represent  a  hinge-joint.  Elastic  bands  are  used 
to  represent  muscles.  In  figure  82,  the 
apparatus  represents  the  foot  and  leg,  and 
the  elastic  band  a  represents  the  muscle  in 
the  calf  of  the  leg.  If  we  let  the  lower  end 
of  c  rest  upon  the  table,  and  press  with  the 
finger  upon  the  upper  end  of  d,  we  notice 
what  a  strong  pull  on  the  part  of  the  elastic 
band  is  required  to  overcome  a  slight 
downward  pressure  by  the  finger.  This 
suggests  why  the  "  tendon  of  Achilles  "  and 
the  muscle  in  the  calf  of  the  leg  need  to  be  so  powerful. 
The  principle  of  the  lever  is  suggested  by  this  apparatus. 
It  may  be  used  to  represent  any  hinge-joint  in  the  body. 
A  rubber  band  is  attached  to  the  opposite  side  of  this 
joint  to  show  how  the  muscles  are  arranged  in  pairs  op- 
posing each  other.  By  adjusting  the  tension  of  these 
elastic  bands  so  as  hold  the  pieces  of  wood  quite  firmly 
in  a  straight  line,  we  may  show  how  the  body  is  made 
rigid  by  contracting  all  the  muscles  which  have  anything 
to  do  with  moving  the  joints. 

The   action   of   the    biceps   muscle  is   illustrated   by 
attaching  a  piece  of  wood,  to  represent   the  shoulder, 


FIG.  82. 


62 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


FIG.  83. 


figure  83.  The  rubber  band  b,  which  represents  the 
biceps  muscle,  is  attached  below  the  elbow-joint  and 
above  the  shoulder-joint.  Two 
other  rubber  bands,  a  and  <?,  are 
so  adjusted  that  when  all  are  hooked 
on  the  pieces  of  wood  c  and  d,  which 
represent  the  arm,  hang  down 
straight.  If  the  rubber  band  a, 
which  works  in  opposition  to  the 
biceps  at  the  elbow-joint,  is  un- 
hooked, the  forearm  c  is  raised  as 
represented  in  figure  83.  If  this 
rubber  band  is  hooked  in  place  again 
and  the  rubber  band  e,  which  works  in  opposition  to  the 
biceps  at  the  shoulder,  is  unhooked,  the  whole  arm  is 
raised,  but  remains  straight.  If  both  a  and  e  are  un- 
hooked the  arm  is  raised  and  bent  over  the  shoulder. 

The  apparatus  is  used,  then,  to  illustrate  the  following 
six  points: 

1.  How  muscles  work  in  opposition  to  each  other  over 
joints. 

2.  How  a  joint  is  made  rigid  by  the  contraction  of 
muscles. 

3.  How  we  rise  on  the  toe. 

4.  How  we  bend  the  forearm. 

5.  How  we  raise  the  arm  when  extended. 

6.  How  we  bend  the  arm  over  the  shoulder. 

No.  93.  Apparatus  to  Show  the  Action  of  the  In- 
tercostal Muscles  to  Enlarge  the  Chest-Cavity. — Five 
slender  sticks  are  pinned  together  as  represented  in  figure 
84.  The  cross  pieces  represent  ribs.  Rubber  bands,  cd 


Physiological  Apparatus. 


and  <?/,  are  attached  diagonally  between  two  of 
these  strips  of  wood,  as  the  intercostal  muscles  are  at- 
tached to  the  ribs.  A  strip  of  cloth,  stiffened  with  starch, 
is  tied  across  between  the  lower  ends  of  the  two  upright 
pieces  of  wood.  This  represents  a  section  through  the 
diaphragm.  If  we  unhook  the  elastic  band  <?/,  the 
other,  cd,  contracts  and  raises  the  apparatus  so  that  it 
takes  the  position  represented  in  figure  84  B.  If,  on  the 


f  IG.  84. 

other  hand,  we  unhook  cd,  the  other  elastic  band,  <»/,  con- 
tracts and  gives  the  position  represented  in  figure  84  A. 
The  space  enclosed  within  these  sticks  is  evidently 
larger  in  figure  B  than  in  figure  A.  In  the  body,  the 
diaphragm  is  a  muscle,  and,  by  relaxing  and  contracting, 
it  moves  more  than  the  strip  of  cloth  does  in  this 
apparatus. 

No.  94.  Apparatus  to  Show  How  Inhalation  and 
Exhalation  Result  from  the  Expansion  and  Contrac- 
tion of  the  Chest  Cavity. — A  common  lamp-chimney 
is  used  to  represent  the  chest-cavity.  Rubber  cloth  is 


Home-made  Apparatus. 


FIG.  85. 


tied  over  the  bottom  to  represent  the  diaphragm.  A 
rubber  stopper  with  one  hole  fits  the  top  of  the  chimney, 
and  through  the  hole  a  short  piece  of  glass  tubing 
passes,  upon  the  lower  end  of 
which  is  tied  a  gold-beater's- 
skin  bag  (sometimes  a  rubber 
balloon  is  used  instead)  to 
represent  the  lungs.  We  may 
contract  and  enlarge  the  space 
inclosed  within  the  lamp-chim- 
ney by  pushing  upward  the 
rubber  cloth  or  drawing  it 
downward,  when  the  bag  which 
represents  the  lungs  will  col- 
lapse and  inflate,  as  represented  in  figures  85  A  and  B. 

This  apparatus  has  many  uses,  as  the  following  will 
show:  We  may  with  a  finger  close  the  hole  in  the  stop- 
per, and  then,  when  we  try  to  move  the  rubber  cloth  up 
and  down  we  appreciate  how  great  is  atmospheric  press- 
ure, somewhat  as  it  is  illustrated  by  Magdeburg  hemi- 
spheres ;  but  while  we  are  doing  this  the  bag  inside  of 
the  chimney  moves  slightly,  showing  the  relation  of  at- 
mospheric tension  to  atmospheric  pressure,  as  was  illus- 
trated in  apparatus  No.  25. 

It  may  be  used  to  introduce  the  study  of  the  pump. 
Figure  86  illustrates  the  modification  of  the  apparatus 
for  this  purpose.  We  enlarge  the  space  in  the  chimney 
by  pulling  upward  the  rubber  cloth,  just  as  we  enlarge 
the  space  in  the  c)dinder  of  a  pump  by  pulling  up  the 
piston,  and  the  tension  of  the  air  in  the  chimney  is  now 
reduced,  so  that  it  no  longer  balances  the  atmospheric 


Physiological  Apparatus.  65 

pressure.  Atmospheric  pressure  then  forces  the  water 
up  the  tube  and  into  the  chimney.  If  this  tube  is  nearly 
closed  at  the  upper  end  we  have  the  fountain,  caused  by 
atmospheric  pressure,  as  described  under  appara- 
tus No.  29.  If,  now,  we  invert  this  apparatus 
and  reverse  the  tube  in  the  stopper,  so  that  the 
large  end  of  it  may  dip  into  water  inside  of  the 
chimney,  we  may  push  upward  the  rubber  cloth 
and  have  a  fountain,  caused  by  compressed  air, 
as  described  under  apparatus  No.  29.  This  lamp- 
chimney  is  used  in  apparatus  No.  33  and  appa- 
ratus No.  34.  It  is  frequently  used  for  appara- 
tus No.  37<z  by  holding  the  chimney  as  shown 
in  figure  86  and  laying  a  book,  with  other 
weights,  upon  the  top,  then  connecting  a  long 
rubber  tube  with  a  short  piece  of  glass  tubing,  which 
passes  through  the  stopper. 

To  illustrate  how  oxygen  diffuses  through  the  lungs 
into  the  blood,  and  how  carbon  dioxide  passes  out  from 
the  blood,  carbon  dioxide  is  passed  into  the  chimney, 
either  from  apparatus  No.  8  or  directly  from  one's  lungs, 
and  then  the  gold-beater's-skin  bag,  which  is  an  animal 
membrane  like  the  lungs,  is  put  back  in  place,  as  shown 
in  figure  85.  The  short  tube  which  carries  the  bag  is 
made  to  extend  only  half-way  up  through  the  hole  in  the 
stopper,  and  another  glass  tube  is  thrust  down  into  the 
same  hole  to  meet  the  short  piece  of  tubing.  We  then 
pull  down  the  rubber  cloth  and  draw  air  into  the  pseudo 
lungs.  Osmose  goes  on  between  the  gases  in  the  chim- 
ney and  those  in  the  bag,  as  is  shown  by  making  the 
glass  tube  which  leads  out  from  the  chimney  dip  into 


66  Home-made  Apparatus. 

lime-water,  pushing  up  the  diaphragm  and  making  this 
chimney  exhale. 

Cost. — Lamp-chimney  and  rubber  cloth  from  apparatus  No.  33. 
Rubber  stopper   No.  7  with  one  hole  (one  hole  plugged) 

from  apparatus  No.  49. 
Gold-beater's-skin  bag  from  apparatus  No.  49. 

No.  95.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  the  Circulation  of 
the  Blood  and  the  Lymph.— A  piece  of  rattan,  figure 
87,  a,  about  one  foot  long  is  used  to  represent  the  capil- 
laries of  the  human  body.  A  syringe,  d,  represents  the 
heart.  A  rubber  tube,  b,  represents  an  artery,  and  an- 
other rubber  tube,  c,  represents  a  vein.  A  short  piece  of 
rubber  tubing,  e,  represents  the  thoracic  duct.  The 
tubes  e  and  c  are  connected  with  the  syringe  by  means  of 
a  glass  Y-tube. 

Water  is  used  to  represent  the  blood  and  the  lymph. 
Every  time  the  syringe-bulb  is  compressed,  forcing  more 
water  into  the  rubber  tube  b,  which  represents  an  artery, 
a  pulse  may  be  felt  by  pressing  the  tube  between  the 
thumb  and  finger.  If  a  cut  is  made  in  this  tube  the  water 
spurts  from  it  every  time  the  bulb  is  pressed, -illustrating 
how  we  bleed  from  an  artery.  The  pores  of  the  rattan 
offer  considerable  resistance  to  the  flow  of  the  liquid,  and 
cause  the  artery  to  get  somewhat  distended,  the  elastic 
walls  of  which  keep  up  a  continual  flow  through  the  rat- 
tan (capillaries)  between  the  heart-beats  (compressions 
of  the  syringe-bulb),  and  hence  there  is  a  constant  flow 
without  pulse,  through  the  rubber  tube  c,  which  repre- 
sents a  vein,  and  if  it  is  cut,  the  flow  of  liquid  is  by  a  con- 
stant dripping.  Some  liquid  under  the  pressure  oozes 
out  through  the  walls  of  the  rattan,  as  it  does  through  the 


Physiological  Apparatus.  67 

blood  capillaries  in  the  body.  This  represents  lymph, 
and  the  branch  tube  e,  which  enters  the  vein  near  the 
heart,  when  there  is  no  outward  but  rather  an  inward 
pressure,  carries  into  o  circulation  an  amount  of  liquid 
equal  to  that  lost  through  the  walls  of  the  rattan. 

Various  kinds  of  syringes  may  be  used  in  the  apparatus 
described  above,  but  the  one  represented  in  figure  87  is 
made  as  follows  :  A  short  piece  of  rubber  tubing,  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  long,  is  drawn  over  a  tapering 
wooden  penholder,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  a  short  slit  is 


FIG.  87. 

cut  in  one  side  of  the  tubing.  One  end  of  the  tube  is 
plugged  with  a  short  piece  of  glass  rod,  or  even  an  end 
of  the  wooden  penholder,  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
long.  This  makes  a  very  perfect  valve.  Liquids  or  gases 
forced  into  the  tube  will  find  exit  through  the  slit,  but 
cannot  pass  in  through  the  slit  since  its  sides  shut  together 
perfectly  tight.  One  end  of  the  Y-tube  in  the  apparatus 
passes  through  a  No.  o  rubber  stopper,  and  one  of 


68  Home-made  Apparatus. 

these  valves  is  then  drawn  over  it.  A  piece  of  glass 
tubing,  five-eighths  of  an  inch  inside  diameter  and  three 
and  one-half  inches  long,  incloses  this  valve.  In  the 
other  end  of  the  glass  tubing  is  another  rubber  stopper, 
No.  o,  through  which  passes  one  end  of  a  T-tube. 
The  side  branch  of  the  T-tube  enters  a  syringe-bulb  and 
the  remaining  end  passes  through  another  rubber  stopper 
into  another  piece  of  the  large  glass  tubing,  and  another 
of  the  valves  is  drawn  over  it.  A  No.  o  rubber 
stopper  fills  the  other  end  of  this  large  glass  tube, 
and  through  it  passes  a  short  piece  of  glass  tubing  con- 
necting with  the  artery.  The  stoppers  are  tied  in  when 
much  pressure  is  to  be  exerted  upon  the  bulb.  This  is  a 
powerful  condenser,  and  is  frequently  used  in  connection 
with  such  pieces  of  apparatus  as  No.  29. 

A  convenient  stop-cock  is  sometimes  put  into  the 
rubber  tube  representing  the  artery.  A  piece  of  small 
glass  tubing  about  three  inches  long  has  a  small  hole 
made  in  one  side  of  it  by  the  method  described  on  page 
14.  The  artery  is  cut  and  this  glass  tube  inserted.  The 
stop-cock  is  opened  and  closed  by  sliding  the  rubber 
tubing  upon  the  glass  tubing  so  as  to  cover  or  uncover 
the  hole. 

Cost. — Rattan 5  cents 

Rubber  tubes  b  and  c,  four  feet  and  two  feet. .  60  cents 

4  rubber  stoppers,  No.  o 12  cents 

T-tube 15  cents 

Y-tube 15  cents 

Rubber  bulb 30  cents 

Rubber  tubing  for  valves 3  cents 

$1.40 


Physiological  Apparatus.  69 

No.  96.  Apparatus  to  Show  how  Muscular  Action 
Assists  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Veins 
and  the  Flow  of  the  Lymph  in  the  Lymphatics. — 

The  rubber  tube  c  which  represented  a  vein  in  the  last 
piece  of  apparatus  is  used  in  this  to  connect  the  two 
chambers  of  the  syringe-pump  which  contain  the  valves, 


FIG. 


figure  88.  A  short  piece  of  glass  tubing,  nearly  closed 
at  the  outer  end,  is  inserted  in  stopper  h,  and  a  short 
piece  of  rubber  tubing  at  the  other  extremity  of  the 
apparatus  dips  into  a  tumbler  containing  water. 

Water  may  be  pumped  through  the  apparatus  by 
alternately  pinching  and  releasing  the  rubber  tube  e.  If 
both  hands  are  used,  water  spurts  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
each  time  the  tube  c  is  compressed. 

Thus  the  veins  and  lymphatics,  which  are  intertwined 
among  the  muscles,  are  alternately  pinched  and  released 
when  the  muscles  contract  and  relax  in  exercise. 

No.  97.  Apparatus  to  Illustrate  how  the  Tension 
of  the  Air  in  the  Interior  of  the  Ear  is  Adjusted  to 
Changes  of  ^  Atmospheric  Pressure.  —  A  i-ounce 
wide-mouth  bottle  has  a  very  small  hole  made  in  it  by 
filing  across  the  edge  where  the  bottom  and  side  meet. 
Over  the  top  of  the  bottle  is  tied  rubber  cloth.  When 
this  bottle  is  put  in  the  receiver,  apparatus  No.  24, 


70  Home-made  Apparatus. 

and  the  air  is  exhausted  or  condensed,  the  rubber  cloth 
is  unaffected  ;  but  where  the  hole  in  the  small  bottle  is 
stopped  with  a  little  wax,  the  rubber  cloth  moves  out 
and  in  as  the  air  in  the  receiver  is  rarefied  or  condensed. 
The  rubber  cloth  represents  the  tympanic  membrane  of 
the  ear,  and  the  small  hole  illustrates  what  is  accomplished 
by  the  eustachian  tube. 

Cost , 3  cents 


List  of  Material.  7  i 


LIST   OF   MATERIAL. 

(The  numbers  in  brackets  refer  to  the  catalogue  of 
Messrs.  Eimer  &  Amend,  205-211  Third  Ave.,  New  York 
City.) 

1  Ib.  of  glass  tubing,  £  to  -£$  inch  inside  diameter  (6540). 
\  Ib.  "       "  f  inch  inside  diameter  (6540). 

£  Ib.  "       "    rod,  T3g-  inch  diameter  (8004). 

2  alcohol  lamps,    4   oz.    (66910),  or  2  Bunsen   burners 

(5809). 
i  quart  of  alcohol,  or  5^  feet  of  rubber  gas  tubing,  £  inch 

(8013). 

i  triangular  file,  4  in.  (6282). 
i  rubber  bulb,  40  to  50  cc.  (5767). 
i  dropper  bulb, 
i  round  file,  5  in.  (6281). 

6  test-tubes,  6xf  in.  (8270). 
Rubber  stoppers  (8010): 

5  number  o  with  one  hole. 

1  number  i  without  holes. 

2  number  i  with  two  holes, 
i  number  3  with  two  holes, 
i  number  5  without  holes. 

number  5  with  two  holes, 
number  6  with  two  holes, 
number  7  without  holes, 
number  7  with  two  holes, 
number  7  with  three  holes, 
number  9  with  two  holes, 
number  10  with  two  holes. 

7  ft.  rubber  tubing,  ^  inch  inside  diameter  (8016). 

i£  ft.  rubber  "  pressure  "  tubing,  -fa  inch  inside  diameter 

(8014). 
Glass  bottles,  round,  wide-mouthed  (5676): 

i  one-ounce. 


72  Home-made  Apparatus. 

4  eight-ounce  (W.  T.  &  Co.  style). 
2  thirty-two-ounce  (E.  &  A.  style). 

Glass  bottles,  round,  narrow-mouthed  (5675): 
i  one-ounce, 
i  eight-ounce. 

5  sixteen-ounce. 
4  tumblers,  large. 

i  tumbler,  small. 

i  lamp-chimney,  common. 

3  lamp-chimneys,  argand,  small  sized. 

1  flask,  2  oz.  (6342). 
flask,  8  oz.  (6342). 
small  glass  dish. 

6-inch  square  of  wire  gauze,  40  meshes  to  inch  (8442). 
ounce  rubber  cloth  (8008). 
Ib.  of  mercury, 
beaker,  ten-ounce  (5561). 

2  T-tubes,  £  inch  (83580). 

1  Y-tube,  £  inch  (8358^). 
goldbeater's  skin  bag. 
small  thermometer. 

glass  funnel,  2|-inch  (6388). 

iron  funnel. 

brass  pillar  and  lava  gas-tip. 

4  zinc  rods  for  Leclanche  battery  cell. 

2  electric-light  carbons. 

6  yards  annunciator  wire. 

\  Ib.  copper  wire,  single  cotton-coated,  No.  24. 

\  Ib.  copper  wire,  single  cotton-coated,  No.  30. 

\  Ib.  copper  wire,  single  cotton-coated,  No.  36. 

Small  spool  of  iron  wire,  No.  16. 

4  inches  of  platinum  wire,  No.  24. 

1  telephone  magnet,  round. 

2  binding  posts,  wood  screw. 

1  ft.  of  rattan,  \  inch  in  diameter. 

2  jelly-caketins,  about  eight  and  nine  inches  in  diameter, 
i  tin  basin,  about  six  inches  in  diameter. 


SE?rr.>    ALT,  OTjr^rs  TO 

52   E,  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO.,  NEW  YORK  &  CHICAGO. 

Woodball's  Simple  Experiments  for  the 

ScHooL-Rooji.  By  Prof.  Jorrx  F.  WOODHULL,  Prof,  of 
Natural  Science  iu  the  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers, 
New  York  City,  author  of  "Manual  of  Home-Made  Appa- 
ratus." Cloth,  16mo.  Price,  50  cents;  to  teachers,  40  cents; 
by  mail,  5  cents  extra. 

This  book  contains  a  series  of  simple,  easily-made  experiments, 
to  perform  which  will  aid  the  comprehension  of  every-day  phe- 
nomena. They  are  really  the  very  lessons  given  by  the  author  in 
the  Primary  and  Grammar  Departments  of  the  Model  School  in 
the  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers,  New  York  City. 

The  apparatus  needed  for  the  experiments  consists,  for  the  most 
part,  of  such  things  as  every  teacher  will  find  at  hand  in  a  school- 
room or  kitchen.  The  experiments  are  so  connected  in  logical 
order  as  to  form  a  continuous  exhibition  of  the  phenomena  of 
combustion.  This  book  is  not  a  science  catechism.  Its  aim  is  to 
train  the  child's  miud  in  habits  of  reasoning  by  experimental 
methods. 

These  experiments  should  be  made  in  every  school  of  our 
country,  and  thus  bring  in  a  scientific  method  of  dealing  with 
nature.  The  present  method  of  cramming  children's  minds  with 
isolated  f;vctsof  which  they  can  have  no  adequate  comprehension 
is  a  ruinous  and  unprofitable  one.  This  book  points  out  the 
method  employed  by  the  best  teachsrs  in  the  best  scJiools. 

WHAT    IT    CONTAINS. 


I.  Experiments  with  Paper. 
H.  "  "  Wood. 

III.  "  a  Candle. 

IV.  "  Kerosene. 
V.  Kindling  Temperature. 


VI.  Air  as  an  Agent  in  Combustion. 
VII.  Products  of  Complete     " 
VIII.  Currents  of  Air,  etc. — Ventila- 

IX.  Oxygen  of  the  Air.  [tion. 

X.  Chemical  Changes. 


In  all  there  are  91  experiments  described,  illustrated  by  35 
engravings. 

Jas.  H.  CanfieM,  Univ.  of  Kans.,  Lawrence,  says:  —  "  I  desire  to  say  morf 
emphatically  that,  the  method  pursued  is  the  only  true  one  in  all  schoo! 
work.  Its  spirit  is  admirable.  Ws  need  and  must  have  far  more  of  this 
instruction  " 

J.  C.  Packard,  Univ.  of  f>  \va,  Iowa  City,  says:  —  "  For  many  years  shut  up 
to  the  simplest  forms  of  illustrative  apparatus,  I  learned  that  the  necessity 
was  a  blessing,  since  so  much.  ci-uhl  bo  accomplished  by  home-made  ap- 
paratus —  Inexpensive  ami  effective." 

Henry  B.  Russell,  v-.Y.o.ibury,  N.  J.,  Supt.  of  the  Friends  School:—  "Ad- 
irable litt.lo  hook.     It  is  ji^t  the  kind  of  book  we  need." 


mi 


S,  T.  Button,  Supt  ScV-Ms.  N^w  Hr.ven,  Ct.—  "  Contains  just  the  kind  ot 
help  teachera  noed  in  a<i-i;>ti:;-j;  neural  science  to  common  schools." 


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EDUCATIONAL  FOUNDATIONS. 

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appears  under  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  EDUCATION,  and  also 
PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  Recent  books  are  starred,  thus  * 

HISTOKY  OF  EDUCATION,  OEEAT  EDU- 
CATOES,  ETC. 

Allen's  Historic  Outlines  ot  Education,      - 
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Browning's  Aspects  of  Education  Best  edition. 
Educational  Theories.    Best  edition. 

*dDUCATICNAL  FOUNDATIONS,  bound  vol.  '91-'92, 

*  "  "  "          '92-'93, 
Kellogg's  Life  of  Pestalozzi,         - 

Lang's    Comeuius,         _„___- 
Basedow,    ------- 

Rousseau  and  his  "Emile"       - 
Horace  Mann,  ------ 

*  "        Great  Teachers  of  Four  Centuries, 

*  "        Herbart  ami  His  Outlines  of  the  Science 

of  Education.  - 

Phelps' Life  ot  David  P.  Page,      -       - 
Quick's  Educational  Reformers,  Best  edition.  - 
*Reiuhart'a  History  ol  Education,       - 

P3INCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

Carter's  Artificial  Stupidity  in  School, 

*EDUCATIONAL  FOUNDATIONS,  bound  vol.  '91-'92,  paper 

*  "  "  "  '92-'93, 
Fitch's  Improvement  in  Teaching,  -     p 
*Hall  (G.  S.)  Contents  of  Children's  Minds, 
Huntington's  Unconscious  Tuition,  -       -       -      p 
Payne's  Lectures  on  Science  and  Art  of  Education, 
Reinhart's  Principles  of  Education,    - 
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Tate's  Philosophy  of  Education.    Best  edition.  - 
'Teachers'  Manual  Series,     24  nos.  ready,     each,  p 

PSYCHOLOSY  AND  EDUCATION. 

A  Hen's  Mind  Studies  for  Toung  Teachers,  -          cl.  .50 

Allen's  Temperament  in  Education,  -       -  -          cl.  .50 

*Kellofg's  Outlines  of  Psychology,      -  paper    .25 

Perez's  First  Three  Years  ot  Childhood.  Best  edition,  cl.  1.50 

Hooper's  Apperception,    Best  edition.       -  -         cl.  .25 

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"      Talks  on  Psychology,    -  cl.  .60 


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Augsburg  s  Easy  Things  to  Draw. 

By  D.  It.  AUGSBURG,  Snpt.  Drawing  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
Quarto,  durable  and  elegant  cardboard  cover,  80  pp.,  with 
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so  constructed  that  any  one  may  reproduce  them.  Its  design  is 
to  furnish  a  hand-book  containing  drawings  as  would  be  needed 
for  the  school-room  for  object  lessons,  drawing  lessons,  busy 
work.  This  collection  may  be  used  in  connection  with  any  sys- 
tem of  drawing,  as  it  contains  examples  suitable  for  practice.  It 
may  also  be  used  alone,  as  a  means  of  learning  the  art  of  draw- 
ing. As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  the  idea  of  this  book  is  new 
and  novel.  Those  who  have  seen  it  are  delighted  with  it  as  it  so 
exactly  fills  a  want.  An  index  enables  the  teacher  to  refer  in- 
stantly to  a  simple  drawing  of  a  cat,  dog,  lion,  coffee-berry,  etc. 
Our  list  of  Blackboard  Stencils  is  in  the  same  line. 

Augsburg's  Easy  Drawings  for  the  Gea- 


CLASS.  By  D.  E.  AUGSBUEG,  B.  P.,  author  of  "Easy 
Things  to  Draw.  "  Contains  40  large  plates,  each  containing 
from  4  to  60  separate  drawings.  96  pp.,  quarto  cardboard 
cover.  Price  50  cents;  to  teachers,  40  cents  ;  by  mail  5  cents 
extra. 

In  this  volume  is  the  same  excellent  work  that  was  noted  in  Mr. 
Augsburg's  "Easy  Things  to  Draw."  He  does  not  here  seek  to 
present  a  system  of  drawing,  but  to  give  a  collection  'of  drawings 
made  in  the  simplest  possible  way,  and  so  constructed  teat  any 
one  may  reproduce  them.  Leading  educators  believe  that  draw- 
ing has  not  occupied  the  position  in  the  school  course  hereto 
fore  that  it  ought  to  have  occupied:  that  it  is  the  most  effectual 
means  of  presenting  facts,  especially  in  the  sciences.  The  author 
has  used  it  in  this  book  to  illustrate  geography,  giving  draw- 
ings of  plants,  animals,  and  natural  features,  and  calling  at- 
tention to  steps  in  drawing.  The  idea  is  a  novel  one,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  practical  manner  in  which  the  subject  is  treated 
vrill  make  the  book  a  popular  one  in  the  school-room  Each 
plate  is  placed  opposite  a  lesson  that  maybe  used  in  connection. 
An  index  brings  the  plates  instantly  to  the  eye. 


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